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THE     ELEMENTS"''    ■    ■    ■•■■•• 


OF 


Rhetoric  and  Composition: 


A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


DAVID  J.  HILL,  LL.  D., 

President  or  the  Untvbrsitt  at  IjEwisburg,  and  Author  of  "  The 
Science  of  Rhetoric." 


NEW     EDITION 


SHELDON    &    COMPANY, 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO. 

1884. 


^■4 


PRESIDENT  HILL'S  TEXT-BOOKS. 


I. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC  AND   COMPOSITION 

n. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  RHETORIC. 

III. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  LOGIC. 
EDUCATJON  DEFT- 


Copyright 

By  Sheldon  &  Company. 

1878  &  18&4. 


^ 


''i^^^l^     ^1^  J  ^i^    ^1^   ^i^ 


rriHIS  book  is  designed  as  a  practical  introduction  to 
'English  composition.  In  "The  Science  of  Rhet- 
oric,"— the  advanced  work  of  the  series, — the  aim  is  to 
present  the  laws  of  discourse  as  a  scientific  system.  In 
this  book,  the  aim  is  to  furnish  a  compendium  of  rules 
for  guidance  in  the  art  of  writing. 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  those  who  will  use  this  book 
can  both  read  and  write  simple  English  sentences.  For 
such  students,  the  mere  making  of  sentences  is  an  unprofit- 
able exercise.  What  they  especially  need  is  direction  how 
to  concentrate  the  mind  upon  the  work  of  composing. 
The  only  way  to  acquire  skill  in  writing  is  by  actual  prac- 
tice in  the  various  processes  of  the  art.  Accordingly, 
learners  should  first  be  assisted  in  finding  a  subject  of 
thought,  and  then  be  shown  how  to  accumulate,  arrange, 
and  express  the  ideas  connected  with  the  theme.  This 
view  has  given  shape  to  the  treatment  of  composition  in 
this  book.  The  learner  is  conducted,  step  by  step,  through 
the  entire  wOrk  of  writing  a  composition,  including  the 
selection  of  a  subject,  the  accumulation  of  materials,  the 
arrangement  of   the  materials,  the  choice  of  words,  the 

54  3 /09 


;fv;  •::    :».\ ..;  preface. 

construction  of  sentences,  the  use  of  figures,  the  yariation 
of  expression,  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript,  the  criti- 
cism of  the  completed  production,  and  the  classification  of 
it  as  a  specific  form  of  composition. 

In  carrying  out  this  plan,  an  effort  has  been  made  to 
stimulate  the  student  with  enthusiasm  in  his  work.  Many 
remarks  and  suggestions  have  been  introduced  in  the 
smaller  type,  as  a  help  to  the  earnest  student,  rather  than 
with  the  intention  that  they  shall  be  learned  for  close 
recitation. 

The  exercises  are  full  and  have  been  prepared  with  some 
care.  They  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  book  for  two 
reasons  :  they  make  the  text  more  compact;  and  they  may 
be  used  in  the  class-room,  without  allowing  the  student  to 
make  too  frequent  reference  to  the  text.  Some  of  the 
plans  are  adapted  from  Graham's  **  English  Style." 

A  Glossary  has  been  combined  with  the  index.  This 
is  regarded  as  a  valuable  feature  of  the  book  for  two  reasons : 
it  makes  the  volume  useful  as  a  work  of  reference,  without 
burdening  the  text  with  technicalities  ;  and  serves  as  a 
pronouncing  and  defining  dictionary  of  difficult  rhetorical 
terms. 

Attention  is  invited  to  the  following 

SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS. 

1.  The  topical  method  of  recitation  is  recommended. 
The  book  is  especially  designed  for  this,  and  pains  have 
been  taken  to  make  the  analysis  clear  and  exact.    The  parts 


PREFACE.  \   ^  ^'\  >     li:\^'^'. 

in  the  fine  type  need  not  be  recited  in  this  way,  but  may 
be  brought  out  by  means  of  questions. 

2.  Work  out  the  Exercises  in  connection  with  the  daily 
recitations,  using  a  blackboard.  Eequire  the  student  to 
know  the  principles  so  well  that  reference  to  the  text  will 
be  unnecessary. 

3.  Do  not  exact  too  much  at  first,  but  insist  that  every 
principle  once  learned  be  applied  in  all  subsequent  exercises. 

4.  Call  attention  to  the  Glossary,  and  encourage  the 
learner  to  use  it  habitually.  All  the  most  difficult  terms 
have  their  pronunciation  marked.  It  is  hoped  that  this 
will  prevent  any  class-room  discussion  about  sira-iles  and 
hyperboles ! 

5.  Encourage  the  best  students  to  recite  verbatim  what 
they  can  of  the  matter  in  fine  type,  but  require  of  the  class 
only  the  substance,  assigning  lessons  accordingly.  This 
plan  will  stimulate  the  more  capable  and  ambitious  students. 

6.  Assign  frequent  reviews,  and  require  the  learner  to 
observe  all  the  rules  in  his  periodical  compositions.  The 
book  should  be  used  as  a  handbook  for  reference  after  it 
has  been  finished  in  the  class-room. 

Some  topics  which  have  been  excluded  from  the  "  Science 
of  Rhetoric,"  are  discussed  here.  These  are  regarded  as 
necessary  to  an  elementary  course  in  composition,  although 
they  do  not  belong,  in  strictness,  to  the  province  of 
Rhetoric. 


, ii  ':  :{    \  :\  . , /         pbefa ce. 

In  the  progress  of  the  work,  many  vahiable  suggestions 
have  been  made  by  Mr.  William  E.  Martin,  A.  M.,  Prin- 
cipal of  the  University  Academy. 

The  present  edition  has  been  carefully  revised,  and  is 
printed  from  new  electrotype-plates,  but  does  not  differ 
substantially  from  the  first  form  of  the  book,  published  in 
1878. 

David  J.  Hill. 

Univbrsitt  at  Lewisbtiro,  April,  1884. 


^ON'^feNT 


OR    ANALYSIS 


INTRODUCTION. 

PA«W» 

r.  DEFINITION  OF   RHETORIC ? 

2.  RELATIONS  OF  RHETORIC  TO  GRAMMAR  AND  LOGIC...  3 

3.  UTILITY  OF  RHETORIC 2 

4.  DIVISION  OF  THE  SUBJECT 8 

CHAPTER     I. 

INVENTION. 

1.  MEANING  OF  INVENTION 5 

2.  PROCESSES  OF  INVENTION 6 


SECTION  I, 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

..   IMPORTANCE  OF  CHOOSING  A  SUBJECT 6 

2.  HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  SUBJECT 7 

3.  QUALITIES  OF  A  GOOD  SUBJECT 7 

4.  RELATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT  TO  THE  WRITER 8 

5.  RELATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT  TO  THE  OCCASION 9 

6.  ADAPTING  A  SUBJECT 9 

7.  STATEMENT  OF  A  SUBJECT 10 


viii         -  ANALYSIS. 

SECTION    II, 
THE  ACCUMULATION  OF  MATERIALS. 

PAGE 

».    IMPORTANCE  OF  COLLECTING  MATERIALS 11 

2.  THE  SOURCES  OF  MATERIALS 12 

3.  HOW  TO  USE  THE  SOURCES 13 

4.  RULES  FOR    REFLECTION 13 

5.  RULES  FOR  READING 14 

SECTION  III. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIALS. 

1.  IMPORTANCE  OF  ARRANGEMENT 16 

2.  PARTS  OF  A  COMPOSITION 16 

3.  THE  INTRODUCTION 17 

4.  THE  DISCUSSION 18 

5.  THE  CONCLUSION 19 

6.  THE  TWO  METHODS  OF  ARRANGEMENT 19 

7.  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  TWO  METHODS 21 

CHAPTER     II. 

STYLE. 

1.  DEFINITION  OF  STYLE.. 23 

2.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  STYLE 24 

3.  THE  GENERAL  LAW  OF  STYLE 25 


4.  DIVISION  OF  THIS  CHAPTER 25 

SECTION  I. 

DICTION. 

1.  DEFINITION  OF  DICTION 25 

2.  MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  A  VOCABULARY 26 

3.  THE  essentials;  OF  GCk3D   DICTION 27 


ANALT8I8.  jx 

I.   PURITY. 

PAGE 

).   THE  MEANING  OF  PURITY 28 

2.  THE  BARBARISM 29 

3.  THE  NATURALIZATION  OF  WORDS  31 

4.  THE  FORMATION  OF  WORDS 31 

II.  PROPRIETY. 

h   MEANING  OF  PROPRIETY 33 

2.  RULES  FOR  PROPRIETY 33 

III.  PRECISION. 

1.  MEANING  OF  PRECISION 37 

2.  RULES  FOR  PRECISION 38 

SECTION  II. 

SENTENCES. 

1.  DEFINITIONS 43 

2.  DIVISION  OF  THIS  SUBJECT 44 

I.  CONCORD. 

1.  RULES  FOR  SIMPLE  SENTENCES 45 

2.  RULES  FOR  COMPOUND  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES 51 

II.  CLEARNESS. 

,.   THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CLEARNESS 53 

2.  RULES  FOR  CLEARNESS 54 

III.   UNITY. 

1.  MEANING  OF  UNITY 58 

2.  RULES  FOR  UNITY 59 

IV.   ENERGY. 

1.  MEANING  OF   ENERGY 62 

2.  RULES  FOR  ENERGY 63 


X  ANALYSIS. 

V.   HARMONY. 

PAGE 

1.  THE  VALUE  OF  HARMONY 60 

2.  RULE^FOR  HARMONY 67 

SECTION   III. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

1.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  PARAGRAPHS 71 

2.  RULES  FOR  PARAGRAPHS 72 

3.  EXAMPLES  OF  PARAGRAPHS 75 

SECTION  IV. 
FIGURES. 

1.  DEFINITION  OF  FIGURES 77 

2.  THE  ORIGIN  OF  FIGURES 78 

3.  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  FIGURES 79 

4.  KINDS  OF  FIGURES 81 

(r.)   Similes 83 

(2.)  Metaphor 83 

(3.)  Personification 83 

(4.)  Allegory 84 

(5.)  Synecdoche 85 

(6.)   Metonymy 86 

(7.)  Exclamation 87 

(8.)  Hyperbole 87 

(9.)  Apostrophe 88 

(10.)  Vision 88 

(11.)  Antithesis 89 

(12,)  Climax 89 

("3-)   Epigram 90 

(14.)   I  nterrogation 90 

(15.)  Irony 90 

5.  RULES  FOR  FIGURES 91 


ANALYSIS.  xi 

SECTION    V. 

VARIATION    OF   EXPRESSION. 

PAGE 

1.  IMPORTANCE  OF  VARIETY .*  . .  93 

2.  KINDS  OF  VARIATION 94 

3.  VARIATION  OF   DICTION 94 

4.  VARIATION  OF  STRUCTURE 97 

CHAPTER     Ml. 

PUNCTUATION    AND   CAPITALS. 

1.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  MANUSCRIPTS 101 

2.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  PUNCTUATION 102 

3.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  POINTS 103 

SECTION  I. 

THE   GRAMMATICAL   POINTS. 

I.    RULES  FOR  THE  COMMA 104 

RULE      I. — Parenthetical  Expressions 105 

RULE     2.— Words  In  Apposition 106 

RULE     3.— Relative  Clauses ^. 106 

RULE     4.— Words  in  a  Series 107 

RULE     5. — Continued  Sentences 107 

RU LE     6.— Dependent  Clauses 108 

RULE     7.— Transposed  Parts ^ 108 

RULE     8— Logical  Subject ' 108 

RULE     9. — Absolute  Constructions 108 

RULE    10.— Words  In  Pairs 108 

RULE    II.— Ellipsis  of  a  Verb 109 

RULE    12.— Words  In  the  Vocative 109 

RULE    13.— Brief  Quotations 109 

RULE    14. — Numeral  Figures 109 


xii  ANALYSIS. 

PAGE 

2.  RULES  FOR  THE  SEMI-COLON 109 

RULE    I. — Short  Sentences  Connected 110 

RULE  2.— Subdivided   Members 110 

RULE  3.— Added  Clauses 110 

RULE  4. — Particulars  in  Apposition 110 

RULE  5. — Common  Dependence Ill 

3.  RULES  FOR  THE  COLON Ill 

RULE    I.— Subdivided   Members Ill 

RULE  2. — Supplementary  Clauses 113 

RULE  3.— Formal  Quotations 112 

RULE  4.— Title- Pages 113 

4.  RULES  FOR  THE  PERIOD 113 

RULE    I. — Complete  Sentences 113 

RULE  2.— Abbreviations 113 

RULE  3.— Title- Pages  and  Headings 114 


SECTION  II. 
THE    RHETORICAL   POINTS. 

1.  RULES  FOR  THE  INTERROGATION  POINT 114 

RULE    I.— Direct  Questions 114 

RULE  2.— Doubt 115 

2.  RULES  FOR  THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT 115 

RULE    I.— With  Interjections 115 

RULE  2.— Strong  Emotion    ..    116 

3.  RULES  FOR  THE  DASH 116 

RULE  I.— Abrupt  Changes 116 

RULE  2.— Rhetorical  Pauses 116 

RU LE  3.— Rhetorical  Repetition 117 

RULE  4.— The  Parenthetical   Dash 117 

RULE  5.— Omissions 117 

RULE  6. — Dependent   Expressions 118 

RULE  7. — Headings  and  Authorities 118 

4.  RULE  FOR  THE  PARENTHESIS 119 


ANALYSIS.  xiii 

PAOB 

5.  RULES  FOR  THE  QUOTATION 120 

RULE    1.— Direct  Quotations 120 

RULE  2.— Quoted  Quotations 121 

SECTION   III. 

PRINTERS'    MARKS. 

1.  ACCENTS 121 

2.  THE  APOSTROPHE 122 

3.  BRACES 122 

4.  BRACKETS 122 

5.  THE  CARET 123 

6.  THE  CEDILLA 122 

7.  DIERESIS 122 

8.  ELLIPSIS 122 

9.  EMPHASIS 122 

10.  THE  HYPHEN 123 

11.  ITALICS 123 

12.  LEADERS 123 

13.  LEADS 123 

14.  PARAGRAPHS 123 

15.  QUANTITY  MARKS \ 123 

•6.  REFERENCE  MARKS 123 

17.  THE   SECTION 123 

18.  THE  TILDE 123 

19.  TYPES 124 

SECTION  IV. 

CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

RULE  I.— First  Words 125 

RULE  2.— Headings 125 

RULE  3.— Quoted  Titles 125 

RULE  4.— Names  of  the  Deity 125 

RULE  5.— The  Bible 126 


xiv  ANALYSIS. 

PA6B 

RULE    6.— Proper  Names 126 

RULE    7. — Derivations  from  Proper  Names 127 

RULE    8.— Titles  of  Office  and  Honor 127 

RULE    9— Personification 127 

RULE  10.— Terms  Defined 128 

RULE    II.— Numbered  Items 128 

RULE  12. — The  Pronoun  I  and  the  Interjection  0 128 

RULE  13.— Important  Words 128 

RULE  14.— Roman  Numerals 128 

SECTION    V. 
THE   CORRECTION    OF    PROOFS. 

1.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  COPY 129 

2.  THE  READING  OF  PROOF 180 

CHAPTER     IV. 

CRITICISM. 

1.  DEFINITION  OF  CRITICISM 184 

2.  THE  VALUE  OF  CRITICISM 134 

3.  KINDS  OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM 185 

4.  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 136 

SECTION  I. 

TASTE. 

1.  DEFINITION  OF  TASTE 137 

2.  ANALYSIS  OF  TASTE 138 

3.  THE  QUALITIES  OF  TASTE 139 

4.  TASTE  UNIVERSAL 139 

5.  THE  VARIATION  OF  TASTE 140 

6.  THE  STANDARD  OF  TASTE 141 


ANALYSIS.  x\ 

PAGE 

7.  THE  CLAIM  OF  THIS  STANDARD 142 

8.  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  TASTE 143 

9.  CATHOLICITY   OF  TASTE 141 

SECTION   II. 
THE    PLEASURES   OF  TASTE. 

1.  KINDS  OF  /ESTHETIC  PLEASURE 145 

2.  THE  BEAUTIFUL 147 

3.  THE  SUBLIME 151 

4.  THE  WITTY 154 

5.  THE  HUMOROUS 156 

6.  THE    PATHETIC :..  158 


CHAPTER     V. 

SPECIAL   FORMS   OF   COMPOSITION. 

1.  KINDS  OF   COMPOSITION 161 

2.  METHOD   OF  TREATMENT....^ 163 

SECTION   I. 
DESCRIPTIONS. 

1.  QUALITIES  OF  A  GOOD  DESCRIPTION 164 

2.  THE  PROCESS   OF  DESCRIBING 165 

SECTION   II. 
NARRATIVES. 

..   QUALITIES  OF  A  GOOD  NARRATIVE 167 

2.  THE  PLOT  OF  A  NARRATIVE 16S 

3.  THF  QUALITIES  OF  A  PLOT 1C9 


xvi  ANALYSIS. 

SECTION   III.  . 
LETTERS. 

PAGE 

1.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  LETTERS 170 

2.  THE  KINDS  OF  LETTERS 170 

3.  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER 177 

4.  GENERAL  RULES  FOR  WRITING  LETTERS ».  184 

SECTION   IV. 

ORATIONS. 

1.  THE  NATURE  OF  AN  ORATION 186 

2.  KINDS  OF  ORATORY 187 

3.  THE  NATURE  OF  PERSUASION 188 

4.  THE  QUALITIES  OF  AN  ORATION 189 

5.  THE  PARTS  OF  AN  ORATION 190 

6.  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FEELINGS 191 

7.  THE  QUALIFICATIONS   OF  AN  ORATOR 193 

SECTION   y. 
POEMS. 

1.  THE  NATURE  OF  A  POEM 194 

2.  KINDS  OF  POEMS l9.-> 

3;  THE  METHOD  OF  POETRY 198 

4.  VERSIFICATION 200 


EXERCISES. 
CHAPTER     I. 

INVENTION. 

SECTION      I.— The  Choice  of  a  Subject 209 

SECTION     II.— The  Accumulation  of  Materials 211 

SECTION    III.— The  Arrangement  of  Materials 218 


ANALYSIS. 


XV 11 


CHAPTER     II. 

STYLE. 

PAGE 

SECTION      I.— Diction 219 


SECTION  II 
SECTION  III 
SECTION  IV 
SECTION     V 


— Sentences 221 

— Paragraphs 227 

—Figures , 227 

— Variation  of  Expression 232 


CHAPTER     III. 

PUNCTUATION    AND   CAPITALS. 

SECTION      I.— The  Grammatical  Points 239 

SECTION     II.— The  Rhetorical   Points 247 

SECTION    III  —The  Use  of  Capitals 251 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 263 


1.   Definition  of  Rhetoric. 

Rhetoric  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  It  is  a  science 
when  it  discovers  and  establishes  the  laws  of  discourse,  an 
art  when  the  laws  are  applied  in  practice.  Rhetoric  is, 
therefore,  the  science  of  the  laws  of  effective  discourse, 
OP  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  effectively. 


The  word  Rhetoric  was  first  applied  to  spoken  discourse  only. 
It  is  derived  through  the  Greek  prjTopLKrj  (rhetorike)  from  ffTJrufj 
(rhetor),  a  speaker ;  and,  accordingly,  means  the  art  of  speaking. 
The  same  general  principles  underlie  and  govern  both  oral  and 
written  discourse,  and  hence  the  meaning  of  the  word  was  so  ex- 
tended as  to  include  all  kinds  of  composition.  This  is  its  modern 
sense.  While  Rhetoric  was  understood  to  apply  only  to  spoken 
discourse,  it  included  vocal  delivery,  and  hence  Elocution  was  re- 
garded as  a  part  of  Rhetoric.  In  modern  times  so  much  attention 
has  been  paid  to  delivery,  and,  since  the  invention  of  printing,  writ- 
ing has  become  so  important,  that  the  oral  utterance  of  a  composi- 
tion is  ranked  as  a  distinct  art,  and  is  no  longer  treated  as  a  part  of 
Rhetoric.     The  reasons  for  this  separation  are : 

1.  It  is  a  bodily  exercise  requiring  a  special  training. 

2.  A  person  may  be  a  good  rhetorician  without  being  a  good 
speaker. 

3.  Penmanship  would  belong  to  Rhetoric  by  as  good  a  right  as 
Elocution. 


2  INTRODUCTION.     • 

.  2.  IJcjlatioats  ^)f  Rhetoric  to  Grammar  and  Logic. 

,,Tq  apeak, or  write  effectively,  one  must  be  correct  in 
I'diigaagCy  odnkisteilt  in  thought,  and  both  forcible  and 
pleasing  in  manner.  Grammar  teaches  us  how  to  write 
correctly,  that  is,  according  to  the  best  usage  of  those 
who  speak  the  same  language.  Logic  teaches  us  how  to 
state  our  thoughts  consistently  with  one  another  and  with 
the  laws  of  mind.  Rhetoric  teaches  us  how  to  add  to 
mere  correctness  and  consistency  such  force  and  attract- 
iveness as  to  make  our  thoughts  clear  and  interesting  to 
others. 

It  is  evident  from  what  is  said  above  that  Rhetoric  presupposes 
both  Grammar  and  Logic.  No  composition  can  be  really  efl'ective 
with  educated  persons  unless  it  is  grammatical  and  logical.  Hence 
Rhetoric  is  founded  upon  Grammar  and  Logic,  and  derives  many  of 
its  laws  from  them.  In  "  The  Science  of  Rhetoric  "  much  attention 
is  given  to  the  Laws  of  Mind,  which  must  be  heeded  in  effective 
writing  and  speaking.  Any  thing  more  than  an  allusion  to  these 
more  philosophical  relations  of  the  subject  would  be  out  of  place  in 
an  elementary  work  like  this.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  no  one 
who  earnestly  wishes  to  be  a  thorough  rhetorician  will  neglect 
these  more  difficult  but  very  important  relations. 

3.  Utility  of  Rhetoric. 

Nothing  can  be  more  useful  to  us  than  a  knowledge  of 
Rhetoric.     Some  of  the  reasons  are  as  follows : 

1.  Discourse  is  governed  by  laws  which  should  b^ 
understood  in  order  to  be  obeyed. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  principles  enables  us  to  do  almost 
everything  more  effectively  than  without  such  knowledge, 
and  this  especially  applies  to  composition. 

3.  The  study  of  Rhetoric  qualifies  us  to  criticise  and 
enjoy  the  finest  productions  of  literary  genius. 


.     INTRODUCTION.  3 

4.  The  mastery  of  discourse  gives  us  power  for  good 
over  all  intelligent  beings. 

It  has  been  maintained  by  some  that  rules  fetter  genius  and  make 
a  writer  stiff  and  pedantic.  It  is  true  that  a  rule  imperfectly  under- 
stood or  clumsily  applied  is  a  hindrance  to  one's  natural  powers  of 
expression,  but  this  applies  equally  well  to  the  precepts  of  any  diffi- 
cult art,  such  as  reading,  playing  on  the  piano,  and  swimming. 
Practice  alone  can  make  the  rules  of  any  art  so  familiar  that  we 
obey  them  unconsciously,  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  writing 
and  speaking.  It  is  also  said  that  many  have  risen  to  eminence 
without  knowing  the  rules  of  literary  art.  However  this  may  be, 
it  is  certain  that,  whether  these  men  of  genius  understood  the  rules 
or  not,  they  obeyed  them,  and  their  success  is  owing  to  their  fidelity 
to  them.  The  greatest  writers  and  speakers  have  been  faithful 
students  of  rhetorical  art.  The  following  story  of  the  greatest 
American  orator  well  illustrates  how  great  achievements  are  made. 
"  On  a  certain  occasion  Mr.  Webster  startled  the  Senate  by  a  beau- 
tiful and  striking  remark  in  relation  to  the  extent  of  the  British 
empire,  as  follows  :  '  She  has  dotted  the  surface  of  the  whole  globe 
with  her  possessions  and  military  posts,  whose  morning  drum-beat, 
following  the  sun  and  keeping  company  with  the  hours,  circles  the 
earth  daily  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken  strain  of  the  martial 
airs  of  England.'  On  going  out  of  the  Senate,  one  of  the  members 
complimented  Mr.  Webster  upon  this,  saying  that  he  was  all  the 
more  struck  with  it  as  it  was  evidently  impromptu.  '  You  are  mis- 
taken,' said  Mr.  Webster:  '  the  idea  occurred  to  me  when  I  was  on 
the  ramparts  of  Quebec  some  months  ago.  I  wrote  it  down  and 
rewrote  it,  and  after  several  trials  got  it  to  suit  me,  and  laid  it  up 
for  use.     The  time  came  to-day,  and  so  I  put  it  in.'  " 


4.  Division  of  the  Subject. 

As  this  book  is  designed  to  be  wholly  practical,  it  is 
proposed  to  conduct  the  learner  along  the  entire  path  of 
actual  writing,  from  the  choice  of  a  subject  to  the  com- 
pletion of  a  composition.  In  order  to  do  this  most  natu- 
rally, we  shall  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  thoroughness,  that 
the  learner  is  a  beginner  in  the  art,  and  to  set  about  the 


4  INTBODUGTION. 

work  of  writing  for  the  first  time.     The  steps  of  such  a 
journey  are  clearly  as  follows  : 

1.  Finding  something  to  say, — or  Invention, 

2.  Finding  how  to  say  what  is  to  be  said, — or  Style, 

3.  The  preparation  of  the  manuscript  for  the  eye  of 
another, — or  Punctuation  and  Capitals. 

4.  The  critical  examination  of  what  has  been  written, 
—or  Criticism,    And, 

5.  The  special  kinds  of  writing  most  common, — or 
Specific  Forms  of  Com^position,  These  will  be 
our  chapters. 

The  strictly  scientific  division  of  Rhetoric,  as  the  author  con- 
ceives it,  has  been  given  in  his  more  advanced  work,  "  The  Science 
of  Rhetoric."  Discourse  aims  to  produce  a  change  (i)  in  the 
mind,  (2)  by  means  of  ideas,  (3)  expressed  through  language. 
This  view  justifies  the  division  of  Rhetoric  into  Laws  of  Mind, 
Laws  of  Idea,  and  Laws  of  Form.  A  more  empirical  method  seems 
necessary  in  an  elementary  work  like  this.  Nothing  can  be  more 
distasteful  to  the  young  than  to  plunge  at  once  into  facts  and  laws 
of  Psychology,  however  necessary  these  may  be  to  a  scientific  view 
of  the  subject.  If  any  arrangement  is  equally  repugnant  to  the 
learner,  it  is  to  place  the  dry  and  technical  rules  of  Punctuation  in 
the  very  beginning  of  a  book,  as  some  writers  have  done  Although 
in  actual  composition  Invention  is  more  diflBcult  than  Style,  no  one 
cares  about  the  manner  of  saying  anything  until  he  has  something 
to  say.  The  arrangement  here  adopted  seems  the  most  natural, 
and  accordingly,  the  most  inviting,  to  young  writers. 


THE    ELEMENTS 


RHETORIC  AND  COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER   i. 

INVENTION. 

1.  Meaning  of  Invention. 

The  term  Invention  (from  the  Latin  invenire,  to  find), 
is  appHed  to  the  whole  process  of  finding  out  what  to  say, 
from  the  selection  of  a  subject  to  the  expression  of  the 
ideas.  The  word  also  means  the  power  of  contriving 
anything,  and  even  the  thing  contrived,  as  when  we  say, 
"He  is  a  man  of  great  invention;^'  or,  *^The  sewing 
machine  is  a  useful  invention."  In  its  rhetorical  sense 
Invention  may  be  defined,  The  preparation  of  the  matter 
of  a  composition. 

In  the  strictest  sense  Invention  does  not  belong  to  Rhetoric. 

The  writer  or  speaker  must  depend  upon  his  subject  for  what  to  say, 
and  Rlietoric  simply  aids  him  in  deciding  how  to  say  it  effectively. 
If  it  were  otherwise,  Rhetoric  would  be  a  universal  science,  and 
would  have  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  lawyer,  the  preacher,  the 
lecturer,  and  even  the  scientific  writer.  This  would  be  impossible. 
What  is  necessary  in  each  case  must  be  determined  by  the  facts  of 
the  subject  and  the  purpose  for  which  one  composes.  In  an  elemen- 
tary work,  however,  some  rules  may  be  given  for  the  guidance  of 
the  beginner. 


6  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

2.  Processes  of  Invention. 

The  first  step  in  preparing  the  matter  for  a  composition 
is  to  select  a  subject  upon  which  to  concentrate  the  ^ 
thoughts.  The  next  is  to  accumulate  materials  by  which 
to  explain,  illustrate,  or  enforce  the  subject.  The  next  is 
to  select  from  the  mass  of  materials  that  which  is  adapted 
to  our  purpose  and  arrange  it  in  a  suitable  manner.  These 
processes, 

1.  The  Choice  of  a  Subject. 

2.  The  Accumulation  of  Materials,    And, 

3.  The  Arrangement  of  the  llatter,  will  be 
treated  of  in  the  following  sections. 


SECTION    I. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

1.  Importance  of  Choosing  a  Subject. 

It  is  impossible  to  write  clearly  unless  one  has  a  theme 
in  mind  on  which  the  attention  is  steadily  fixed.  If  there 
be  no  subject,  words  will  be  strung  along  loosely  and  to 
no  purpose,  confusion  of  thought  will  be  evident,  and  the 
production  will  be  useless. 

A  steady  adherence  to  the  subject,  making  everything  bear 
upon  and  support  it,  was  the  chief  merit  of  the  greatest  orator  of 
antiquity,  the  Grecian,  Demosthenes.  So  thoroughly  was  he  pos 
sessed  with  his  theme  that  when  we  read  his  orations  "it  is  as 
though  we  were  embarked  upon  a  mighty  river.  All  is  animation 
and  energy  around,  and  we  gaze  with  a  momentary  reverie  upon 
the  deep  and  transparent  waters.  But  even  while  we  admire,  the 
current  grows  deeper  and  deeper,  and  we  are  unconsciously  hurried 
onward  with  increasing  and  irresistible  power." 


INVENTION.  7 

2.  How  to  Obtain  a  Subject, 

Sometimes  a  subject  is  given  to  a  writer,  and  lie  is  re- 
quired to  write  about  it.  More  frequently  the  selection  is 
left  to  the  writer  himself.  In  the  latter  case  he  is  likely 
to  be  at  a  loss  how  to  decide  upon  a  suitable  theme.  The 
best  way  is  to  begin  by  asking  yourself  questions  until 
something  suggests  itself  which  really  interests  you. 
Having  in  this  way  obtained  a  theme, .  before  finally 
adopting  it,  try  it  carefully  by  the  following  rules,  in 
order  to  test  its  fitness.  It  should  be  suited  to  the  writer 
and  the  occasion,  as  weU  as  suitable  in  itself. 

Much  sliould  be  made  of  the  suggestion  to  ask  yourself  ques- 
tions. This  is  the  door  to  all  great  discoveries  in  science,  inven- 
tions in  art,  and  originality  in  literature.  If  learners  would  only- 
open  their  eyes  and  notice  what  is  occurring  about  them  every  day 
in  nature,  society,  and  their  own  personal  experience,  they  would 
find  attractive  subjects  suggested  almost  every  moment. 

3.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Subject. 

Since  we  cannot  write  equally  well  on  every  subject, 
some  rules  for  judging  of  the  fitness  of  a  subject  in  itself 
may  be  given. 

(1)  A  subject  must  have  unity..  By  this  is  meant  that 
it  must  be  one  subject,  and  not  a  medley  of  thoughts 
without  connections. 

(2)  It  must  not  be  too  broad.  The  narrower  a  subject 
is  the  more  fresh  and  original  will  be  your  treatment  of 
it.  This  seems  strange  at  first,  but  you  see  more  things 
with  the  help  of  a  microscope  than  you  see  with  the  naked 
eye ;  and  by  examining  a  subject  closely  more  ideas  are 
suggested. 


8  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

(3)  It  must  be  clear.  In  a  composition  everything  will 
be  cloudy  unless  the  theme  be  clear.  The  subject  is  the 
sun,  the  paragi-aphs  are  the  planets,  and  the  sentences  are 
the  satellites.  The  sentences  reflect  light  on  the  para- 
graphs, the  paragraphs  shine  with  the  light  of  the  subject, 
but  if  you  blot  this  out  all  is  darkness. 

(4)  It  must  be  fresh.  Do  not  be  satisfied  with  old  or 
musty  themes  that  have"  no  interest  for  any  one.  The 
world  is  full  of  subjects  that  quicken  and  delight  the 
curiosity.  Composition  writing  is  a  joyous  occupation 
when  it  is  made  a  fountain  of  knowledge. 


4.  Relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Writer, 

A  subject  may  be  very  interesting  in  itself  and  yet  not 
suited  to  the  writer  who  has  chosen  it.  Hence  we  have 
some  rules  on  this  point. 

(1)  The  writer  must  be  interested  in  his  subject.  It  is 
very  disagreeable  and  unprofitable  to  regard  composition 
writing  as  task-work.  There  is  no  necessity  for  this 
slavish  feeling.     Every  one  is  interested  in  something. 

(2)  He  should  choose  something  about  which  he  can 
express  what  he  believes.  Earnestness  of  conviction  is 
a  great  help  to  clear,  strong  expression,  and  without  it 
there  is  danger  of  all  kinds  of  fanciful  vaporizing. 

(3)  He  should  choose  a  subject  suited  to  his  powers. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  knowledge  required  for  a 
full  treatment  of  the  subject  should  be  possessed  before- 
hand. One  of  the  best  results  of  writing  is  that  learners 
study  a  subject  carefully  in  order  to  write  about  it  well. 
But  the  subject  should  not  be  above  the  writer's  ability  to 


INVENTION.  9 

understand,  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  reflection,  advice 
and  reading. 

5.  Relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Occasion. 

A  subject  may  be  good  in  itself  and  suited  to  the  writer, 
but  still  fail  of  its  purpose  because  not  fit  for  the  occasion. 
We  must,  therefore,  consider  a  third  class  of  rules. 

(1)  The  subject  should  be  hapmonious  with  the  feelings 
proper  to  the  occasion.  A  due  regard  must  always  be  had 
for  the  position,  character,  and  sentiments  of  the  persons 
whom  we  address. 

(2)  The  subject  should  be  of  interest  at  the  time,  and 
to  the  persons  whose  attention  is  enlisted.  No  one  has 
the  right  to  rob  others  of  their  time,  and  tax  their 
patience,  in  listening  to  what  is  untimely  or  dull. 

(3)  The  subject  should  be  suited  to  the  intelligenoe  of 
those  for  whom  it  is  intended.  Unless  this  rule  is  obeyed, 
our  efforts  are  wasted,  and  the  previous  rule  is  violated. 

6.  Adapting  a  Subject. 

Possibly  a  subject  may  be  too  good  to  reject  and  yet 
require  some  change,  in  order  to  suit  the  writer  or  the 
occasion.  In  this  case  it  may  often  be  adapted  by  some 
slight  limitation.  Thus,  for  example,  let  us  take  the  sub- 
ject "  Virtue."  This  is  too  broad  for  treatment  in  a  single 
composition.  We  may  modify  it  in  a  great  many  ways. 
We  may  say,  for  instance,  "The  Origin  of  Virtue,"  "The 
Advantages  of  Virtue,"  '^The  Rewards  of  Virtue,"  "The 
Hindrances  to  Virtue,"  etc.  By  breaking  up  the  subject 
in  this  way  we  make  the  new  subjects  less  broad,  but  some 


10  The  elements  of  rhetoric. 

of  them  are  quite  difficult  as  compared  with  others.  This 
helps  us  to  select  from  the  different  views  of  a  subject  that 
which  is  best  suited  to  us.  We  may  then  continue  the 
process  of  limitation.  For  instance,  we  may  limit  '^The 
Ee wards  of  Virtue "  to  some  particular  class,  say  mer- 
chants, and  we  should  have,  "  The  Rewards  of  Virtue  to 
Merchants."  We  may  further  limit  virtue  by  confining 
it  to  some  one  kind  of  virtue,  say  honesty,  and  we  should 
have,  "  The  Rewards  of  Honesty  to  Merchants." 

7.  Statement  of  a  Subject. 

If  any  one  will  examine  the  last  subject  a  little,  he  will 
discover  that  it  is  ambiguous ;  and  this  leads  us  to  some 
rules  on  the  statement  of  a  subject. 

(1)  The  statement  must  be  clear.  "The  Rewards  of 
Honesty  to  Merchants"  may  be  a  good  subject,  but  it  is 
not  perfectly  clear  what  it  means.  Does  it  mean,  the 
rewards  of  those  who  are  honest  to  merchants,  or  the 
rewards  of  merchants  who  are  honest  ?  It  may  mean 
either,  and  hence  ought  to  be  differently  stated ;  as,  "  The 
Rewards  of  Honesty  in  Merchants.^' 

(^)  Avoid  meaningless  combinations  of  words.  A  cel- 
ebrated American  writer  calls  one  of  his  books,  *'The 
Past,  the  Present  and  the  Future,"  and  no  one  can  guess 
what  it  is  about. 

(3)  Avoid  figurative  expressions.  No  meaning  is  con- 
veyed by  such  titles  as  "  Sesame  and  Lilies,"  and  "Chips 
from  a  German  Workshop,"  which  great  authors  some- 
times give  to  their  books. 

(4)  Be  careful  to  limit  properly  the  statement  of  the 
subject.     If  one  were  to  write,  for  example,  on  the  "  Re- 


INVENTION,  11 

wards  of  Virtue/'  and  call  his  composition  "  Virtue,"  he 
would  promise  much  more  than  he  would  perform. 

It  is  diflBcult  tp  insist  on  such  rules  as  have  been  laid  down  above, 
when  men  of  genius,  like  Ruskin,  persist  in  giving  their  works  such 
fanciful  titles  that  no  one  can  tell  what  they  mean.  Thus  we  have 
"A  Crown  of  Wild  Olives,"  on  work,  traffic,  and  war  ;  "  The  Queen 
of  the  Air,"  on  Greek  myths  of  cloud  and  storm  ;  "  Unto  this  Last," 
on  the  elements  of  political  economy.  The  practice  is  a  vexatious 
one,  and  deserves  to  be  discouraged. 

Ill  this  section,  on  "The  Choice  of  a  Subject,"  we 
have  considered  : — 

1.  The  Importance  of  Choosing  a  Subject, 

2.  How  to  Obtain  a  Subject, 

3.  The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Subject, 

4.  The  Relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Writer, 

5.  The  Relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Occasion, 
6»  Adapting  a  Subject, 

t.  The  Stiiteiuent  of  a  Subject, 


SEGTIOIT    11. 

THE  ACCUMULATION   OF   MATERIALS. 

1,  Importance  of  Collecting  Materials. 

No  one  ought  to  presume  to  write  or  speak  without 
haying  something  worth  saying.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  we  can  say  something  really  valuable  without  much  1 
effort,  hat  generally  it  is  necessary  to  exert  ourselves  in 
order  to  say  anything  appropriate.  He  who  has  an  in- 
teresting fact,  an  apt  illustration,  or  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion to  offer  on  any  subject  will  command  attention.  If 
we  say  only  what  readily  suggests  itself  to  us,  we  shall 
probably  repeat  only  what  has  already  been  thought  of  by 


12  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

others.  Hence,  the  first  thing  to  do  after  selecting  a  sub- 
ject is  to  collect  facts,  illustrations,  and  proofs  with  regard 
to  it. 

Young  writers  are  especially  anxious  to  be  original,  and  often  feel 
that  it  is  unworthy  of  them  to  seek  for  information  outside  of  their 
own  experience.  Let  any  one  ask  himself  what  portion  of  his  knowl- 
edge has  originated  with  himself  and  what  portion  has  been  derived 
from  books  and  conversation,  and  his  regard  for  his  own  attain- 
ments will  very  much  lessen.  But  originality  in  literature  does  not 
consist  in  an  absolute  creation  of  some  thing  out  of  nothing.  This 
is  impossible,  even  in  fiction,  for  the  imagination  can  combine  only 
those  elements  which  observation  and  instruction  have  afforded. 
He  is  original  in  the  literary  sense  who  forms  a  new  combination  of 
facts,  throws  new  light  upon  their  relations,  or  illustrates  them  in  a 
new  and  attractive  way.  He  is  best  able  to  do  this  who  has  the 
widest  range  of  knowledge.  It  has  been  well  said,  that  invention 
in  art  does  not  consist  in  finding  out  something  new,  but  in  finding 
a  new  value  in  something  old. 

2.  The  Sources  of  Materials. 

Where  are  we  to  look  for  these  materials  ?  The  sources 
from  which  they  may  be  derived  are  four  : 

(1)  If  our  subject  permit  it,  we  may  obtain  materials  by 
actual  observation. 

(2)  Sometimes  we  may  secure  thoughts  on  the  subject 
by  reflection. 

(3)  In  most  cases,  if  we  have  access  to  a  library  or  even 
to  an  encyclopedia,  we  may  find  sufiicient  information  by 
reading. 

(4)  Occasionally  we  cannot  find  just  what  is  wanted  in 
books,  but  may  procure  help  from  some  intelligent  person 
by  conversation. 

It  is  cruel  to  require  learners  to  make  bricks  without  straw.  It 
is  not  wonderful  that  school  compositions  are  so  often  the  bane  of 


INVENTION.  13 

the  writer  and  barren  of  all  interest  to  the  instructor.  Nothing  has 
so  much  tended  to  lessen  respect  for  rhetorical  studies  as  the  false 
notion  that  Rhetoric  is  a  mere  playing  with  words.  Let  the  young 
writer  first  of  all  be  led  to  the  sources  of  knowledge  and  have  some- 
thing to  say  before  he  is  made  to  write.  "  Speak  not  at  all  in  any- 
wise," says  a  great  modern  writer,  Thomas  Carlyle,  "  until  you 
have  somewhat  to  speak  ;  care  not  so  much  for  the  reward  of  your 
speaking,  but  simply  and  with  undivided  mind  for  the  truth  of  your 
speaking."  Fulness  of  knowledge  improves  a  writer's  matter,  man- 
ner and  morals.  ^ 

3.  How  to  Use  the  Sources. 

First  of  all  use  youp  own  senses.  See  and  hear  all  you 
can  that  will  help  you.  Knowledge  obtained  by  one's  self 
is  always  more  clear,  fresh,  and  interesting  than  if  obtained 
at  second  hand.  Do  not  go  to  Homer  for  a  sunrise,  when 
you  can  see  one  every  morning.  After  observing,  reflect. 
Try  to  remember  all  you  can  that  you  have  ever  known 
about  the  subject.  Questions  will  at  once  arise  which  you 
cannot  answer.  Go  to  books  for  the  answers.  If  the  books 
do  not  help  you,  ask  some  person  who  may  be  able  to 
direct  you.  Never  ask  help  as  long  as  you  can  help  your- 
self. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  teacher  never  to  furnish  assistance  when 
it  is  possible  for  the  learner  to  accomplish  his  purpose  without  aid,- 
It  is  advisable  to  suggest  authorities,  but  each  one  should  be  re- 
quired to  consult  them  for  himself,  and  to  judge  for  himself  what 
will  suit  his  purpose.  The  habit  of  investigation  is  of  very  great 
value  to  every  one  who  acquires  it.  In  all  the  professions,  such  as 
law,  medicine,  theology,  or  teaching,  one  of  the  chief  occupations  is 
the  consulting  of  authorities.  The  earlier  the  habit  is  acquired  the 
better. 

4.  Rules  for  Reflection. 

A  few  plain  hints  about  reflection  may  be  of  use. 

(1)  Surround  your  subject  with  questions.     Let  us  take 


14:  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG, 

the  subject  "  Clouds/'  to  illustrate.  You  begin  by  ask- 
ing, What  are  clouds  ?  How  are  clouds  produced  ?  What 
are  their  forms  ?  What  are  their  uses  ?  Why  do  they  bring 
rain?  Why  do  clouds  bring  wind?  How  do  clouds  cause 
thunder? 

(8)  Try  to  answer  youp  own  questions.  This  will 
quicken  your  thoughts  and  supply  you  with  much  to  say, 
but  you  will  now  feel  the  need  of  better  answers  than  you 
can  give.  This  will  lead  you  to  consult  books.  Richter 
advises  never  to  read  until  you  have  thought  yourself 
hungry. 

If  reading  precede  reflection  two  disadvantages  follow.  In  the 
first  place,  we  are  likely  to  be  so  well  satisfied  with  the  opinions  of 
others  that  we  accept  them  without  reflection,  unless  we  have  formed 
views  of  our  own.  In  the  second  place,  we  are  not  so  much  in- 
terested in  what  we  read  as  if  we  were  previously  anxious  to  confirm 
or  rectify  our  own  ideas  on  the  subject.  Hence  Gibbon  commends 
his  own  habit  of  reading,  which  he  thus  describes  :  "  After  a  rapid 
glance  on  the  subject  and  distribution  of  a  new  book,  I  suspend  the 
reading  of  it,  which  I  only  resume  after  having  examined  the  sub- 
ject in  all  its  relations  ;  after  having  called  up  in  my  solitary  walks 
all  that  I  have  read,  or  thought,  or  learned  in  regard  to  the  subject 
of  the  whole  book  or  of  some  chapter  in  particular.  I  thus  place 
myself  in  a  condition  to  estimate  what  the  author  may  add  to  my 
general  stock  of  knowledge,  and  I  am  thus  sometimes  favorably 
disposed  by  the  accordance,  sometimes  armed  by  the  opposition  of 
our  views." 

5.  Rules  for  Reading. 

A  few  brief  suggestions  on  reading  may  be  helpful. 

(1)  Reading  should  be  varied.  If  a  single  author  be 
followed,  there  is  danger  of  being  a  servile  copyist,  or  even 
a  plagiarist,  without  your  having  any  such  intention.  The 
consultation  of  several  authors  leads  to  comparison,  and 
cultivates  the  judgment. 


INVENTION.  15 

(2)  Reading  must  be  assimilated.  If  we  do  not  make 
what  we  borrow  from  books  our  own,  we  have  no  riglit  to 
use  it.  We  have  made  the  matter  of  a  book  our  own  only 
when  we  perfectly  understand  it,  and  can  express  it  in  our 
own  language. 

(3)  Obtain  general  views  first.  Encyclopedias,  reviews, 
and  indexes  will  direct  you  to  more  specific  authorities, 
after  giving  you  an  outline  of  the  subject. 

A  great  English  teacher,  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby,  once  said 
that,  in  his  opinion,  that  is  the  best  composition  "which  shows  that 
the  boy  has  read  and  thought  for  himself ;  that  the  next  best  which 
shows  that  he  has  read  several  books,  and  digested  what  he  has 
read  ;  and  that  the  worst  which  shows  that  he  has  followed  but  one 
book,  and  that  without  reflection."  It  is  an  important  question  how 
far  one  may  use  the  writings  of  others  without  breaking  a  moral 
law.  Literary  projjerty  differs  from  other  possessions  in  many  ways, 
but  it  is  none  the  less  property.  Facts  are  common  to  all ;  but, 
while  no  one  may  put  a  fence  around  truth  and  claim  it  as  his  own, 
forms  of  expression,  figures  of  speech,  and  combinations  of  thought, 
belong  to  their  author,  for  they  are  his  products.  It  is  always 
wrong  to  make  a  false  pretense.  If  extracts  are  taken  they  should 
be  acknowledged  as  such,  and  not  passed  off  as  your  own.  If  an  ab- 
stract or  paraphrase  is  made,  giving  an  author's  views  in  somewhat 
different  language,  that  also  ought  to  be  made  known.  Such  sum- 
maries may  be  of  great  service  to  the  learner,  by  providing  him  with 
the  matter  and  leaving  him  free  to  use  all  his  powers  of  expression. 

In  this  section,  on   "The  Accumulation  of  Mate- 
rials," we  have  considered:— 

1.  The  Importance  of  Collecting  Materials, 

2.  The  Sources  of  Materials^ 

3.  Hoiv  to  use  the  Sources, 

4.  Hules  for  Itefiection, 

5.  Mules  for  Heading, 


16  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIC. 

SEIGTIOIT    III. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIALS. 

1.  Importance  of  Arrangement. 

A  mass  of  materials,  however  fine  the  quality,  no  more 
constitutes  a  composition  than  a  pile  of  bricks  and  lumber 
constitutes  a  palace.  The  builder  must  select,  fit,  and  join 
together  the  materials  before  there  is  a  building.  A  host 
of  men  crowded  together  are  not  an  army.  The  lines 
must  be  formed  and  order  instituted  before  they  are  ready 
for  a  battle.  A  writer  requires  as  much  skill  in  arrange- 
ment as  a  general.  Words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  are 
his  soldiers,  companies  and  regiments. 

A  great  French  writer,  Pascal,  says,  "  The  disposition  of  the  mate- 
rials is  sometliing  new.  In  playing  tennis  both  use  the  same  ball, 
but  one  places  it  better  than  the  other.  It  might  as  well  be  objected 
that  I  use  current  words ;  as  if  the  same  thoughts  did  not  form  a 
different  body  of  discourse  by  a  different  arrangement,  just  as  the 
same  words  differently  disposed  form  different  thoughts." 

2.  Parts  of  a  Composition. 

The  usual  parts  of  a  composition  are  three. 

(1)  There  should  be  an  Introduction.  This  is  not  neces- 
sary, but  it  is  usually  required  to  bring  the  discussion  into 
connection  with  the  occasion. 

(2)  There  must  be  a  discussion.  By  this  is  meant 
that  we  cannot  establish  anything  in  the  mind  of  another 
without  using  facts,  illustrations,  or  arguments,  to  assist 
us. 

(3)  There  must  be  a  conclusion.  When  we  invite 
others  to  accompany  us  in  our  thoughts,  we  are  under  an 


INVENTION,  17 

obligation  to  conduct  them  to  some  new  state  of  mind. 
Unless  there  is  some  end  to  be  attained,  there  is  no  use  of 
writing  or  speaking.  We  should  always  have  some  definite 
state  of  mind  in  view  to  which  everything  should  tend. 

The  ancient  rhetoricians  regarded  an  oration  as  having  six 
essential  parts,  (1)  the  Exordium,  (2)  the  Division,  (3)  the  State- 
ment, (4)  the  Reasoning,  (5)  the  Appeal  to  the  Feelings,  and  (6)  the 
Peroration.  This  division  is  mechanical  and  arbitrary.  The  more 
natural  and  fully  conformed  to  the  subject-matter  and  the  purpose 
the  division  is,  the  better.  Sometimes  no  exordium  is  needed. 
Often  a  formal  division  is  undesirable.  A  statement  is  occasionally 
unnecessary.  Reasoning  is  often  needless  after  a  mere  recital  of 
facts.    An  appeal  to  the  feelings  is  sometimes  wholly  improper. 

3.  The  Introduction. 

The  introduction  should  have  the  following  qualities: 

(1)  It  should  be  modest.  If  you  raise  great  expecta- 
tions at  the  outset,  you  will  cither  be  compelled  to  make 
a  great  effort  to  fulfill  your  promises,  or  bear  the  odium  of 
disappointing  your  readers. 

(2)  It  should  be  moderate.  Your  reader  is  not  likely 
to  feel  very  deeply  until  he  has  given  attention  to  the  facts 
and  arguments  which  may  have  aroused  your  mind.  Let 
the  feelings  develop  with  the  discussion. 

(3)  It  should  be  short.  The  object  of  an  introduction 
is  merely  to  introduce  the  main  discussion.  Tt  ought  to 
be  proportionally  brief.  The  vestibule  should  not  be 
larger  than  the  house. 

(4)  It  should  be  natural.  By  this  is  meant  that  it 
ought  to  grow  out  of  both  the  subject  and  the  occasion,  so 
as  to  form  a  convenient  bridge  between  them. 

(5)  It  should  excite  interest.     It  is  not  so  necessary  that 


18  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIO. 

the  introduction  should  be  striking  in  itself  as  that  it 
should  awaken  a  desire  to  follow  the  writer  and  learn  more 
about  the  subject.  Attention  is  generally  giyen  at  the  be- 
ginning, but  it  is  soon  lost,  if  there  be  no  promise  of  reward. 

Although  Cicero  laid  down  the  rale,  that  the  introduction  should 
be  written  last,  in  order  that  it  might  spring  naturally  from  the 
matter  under  consideration,  he  did  not  always  obey  his  own  precept. 
In  one  of  his  Letters  to  AtticuB,  we  learn  that  he  was  accustomed  to 
prepare  a  quantity  of  introductions,  to  be  used  when  needed.  Hav- 
ing inadvertently  used  the  same  one  twice,  he  was  informed  by 
AtticuB  of  his  blunder,  and,  confessing  his  mistake,  sent  him  a  new 
one.     Cicero's  rule  was  better  than  his  practice. 

4.  The  Discussion. 

The  discussion  will  be  improved  by  keeping  in  mind 
two  questions: 

(1)  What,  precisely,  do  I  wish  to  accomplish  ?    If  the 

purpose  of  the  composition  be  steadily  held  in  mind,  every 
fact,  argument,  and  illustratioa  will  probably  be  appro- 
priate to  the  subject  and  add  strength  and  interest  to  the 
whole. 

(2)  How  shall  I  accomplish  my  object?  This  question 
will  suggest  heads  and  illustrations,  and  also  help  in  com- 
bining them.  Whatever  does  not  contribute  to  the  pur- 
pose must  at  once  be  rejected.  A  composition  must  grow 
like  a  tree.  A  tree  is  surrounded  with  materials,  but  it 
takes  only  what  it  can  assimilate. 

Much  heroism  is  required  to  avoid  putting  thoughts,  words,  or 
figures  into  our  writings  when  their  only  claim  is  their  intrinsic 
beauty.  At  this  point  the  difference  between  a  cultivated  and  a 
barbarous  taste  is  evident  in  writing.  The  savage  paints  his  face 
with  the  brightest  and  most  incongruous  colors,  and  ornaments  his 
person  with  all  the  gorgeous  articles  in  his  possession.     It  is  because 


INVENTION.  19 

he  loves  finery  for  its  own  sake.  A  similar  taste  is  often  shown  in 
writing.  To  put  all  your  fine  figures  and  phrases  and  allusions  into 
a  composition  which  they  serve  only  to  ornament,  but  not  to  illus- 
trate or  strengthen,  is  like  collecting  all  the  fine  articles  in  the 
house  for  exhibition  in  a  front  window. 


6.  The  Conclusion. 

Some  rules  may  be  given  as  regards  the  conclusion. 

(1)  The  conclusion  should  not  be  forced.  The  natu- 
ral and  proper  consequences  of  the  discussion  may  be 
stated  in  the  conclusion,  but  care  is  necessary  to  avoid 
claiming  more  than  has  been  established. 

(2)  The  conclusion  may  express  more  feeling  than  the 
introduction.  After  considering  all  the  facts  the  reader 
is  better  prepared  to  share  your  emotions.  The  conclu- 
sion is  the  place,  therefore,  for  an  appeal  to  the  feelings. 

(3)  A  conclusion  may  consist  of  a  recapitulation  of  the 
discussion.  This  is  especially  useful  if,  for  any  reason, 
the  discussion  has  been  fragmentary  or  made  up  of  many 
details.  An  inverse  order  is  best,  if  the  strongest  points 
have  been  stated  first.  The  conclusion  ought,  like  a 
burning-glass,  to  gather  and  concentrate  into  a  focal  point 
all  the  separate  rays  of  the  composition. 

6.  The  Two  Methods  of  Arrangement. 

There  are  two  methods  of  arrangement  which  may  be 
used  in  combining  the  materials  of  a  composition.  They 
are  as  follows : 

(1)  The  analytic  method  begins  with  facts  and  derives 
principles  from  them.  It  also  begins  with  a  complex 
whole  and  resolves  it  into  its  elements. 


30  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOEIG. 

(2)  The  synthetic  method  is  the  reverse  of  the  analytic. 
It  begins  with  principles  and  classifies  facts  under  them. 
It  begins  with  elements  and  combines  them  into  a  whole. 
The  two  methods  are  fully  illustrated  below. 

Explanation. — The  words  Analysis  and  Synthesis  are  easily 
confused.  Analysis  is  from  the  Greek  uva  and  T^veiv,  meaning  to 
loosen  again,  that  is,  to  disengage.  Synthesis  is  from  the  Greek 
avv  and  ndivai,  meaning  to  put  together,  that  is,  to  compound.  A 
fact  may  be  regarded  as  a  concrete  embodiment  of  principles.  The 
elucidation  of  the  principles  involved  is  then  analysis.  Beginning 
with  a  material  whole  analysis  resolves  it  into  its  parts.  Synthesis 
is  the  reverse  of  analysis.  Beginning  with  principles  it  puts  to- 
gether the  facts  logically  ranging  themselves  under  them.  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  analytical  and  the  synthetical  method  may  be 
more  fully  traced  in  Hamilton's  "  Logic,"  pages  336,  840. 

Examples. — Let  us  start  with  the  question,  What  are  the  ben- 
efits of  railroads?  From  the  various  sources  of  information  we  find 
the  following  to  be  facts :  (1)  Railroads  facilitate  purchases.  (2) 
They  carry  news.  (3)  They  prevent  suffering  by  conveying  succor. 
(4)  In  travel  they  save  time,  which  may  be  used  in  reading,  (5)  They 
make  a  market  for  produce.  (6)  They  furnish  labor  to  the  poor. 
(7)  They  arrest  crime.  (8)  They  render  wars  less  probable  by 
uniting  the  interests  of  men.  (9)  They  make  men  more  charitable 
by  extending  their  knowledge  of  one  another.  If  these  facts  were 
stated  as  they  are  above,  they  would  have  considerable  force,  but 
they  gain  something  by  a  more  systematic  arrangement.  Let  us 
see  how  great  an  improvement  this  is. 

First,  let  us  try  the  analytic  method.  By  this  method  we  derive 
principles  from  facts.  Let  us  see  what  principles  may  be  derived 
from  the  facts  given. 

Railroads 

a.  Facilitate  purchases. 

b.  Make  a  market  for  produce.  , 

1.  Hence,  promote  commercial  prosperity. 
a.  Prevent  suffering. 

6.  Furnish  labor  to  the  poor. 

c.  Render  wars  improbable. 

2.  Hence,  promote  physical  prosperity. 

But  since  they  promote  commercial  and  physical  prosperity,  they 


INVENTION.  gl 

I.  Promote  maierial  prosperity.     They  also 
a.  Carry  news. 
&.  Save  time  for  reading. 

1.  Hence,  promote  intelligence. 
a.  Arrest  crime. 

6.  Make  men  more  charitable. 

2.  Hence,  promote  moraZs. 

But  since  tliey  promote  intelligence  and  morals,  they 

II.  Promote  social  prosperity. 
Result  :    Since   they  promote  material  and  social  prosperity, 

RAILKOADS  ARE  A  UNIVERSAL  BENEFIT. 

Let  US  now  reverse  the  arrangement  and  present  the  same  facts 
according  to  the  synthetic  method.     First  of  all  we  must  state  a 
Theme  :  Railroads  are  a  universal  benefit,  for 

I.  They  promote  material  prosperity. 

1.  By  promoting  commercial  prosperity. 
a.  For  they  facilitate  purchases. 

6.  And  make  a  market  for  produce. 

2.  By  promoting  physical  prosperity. 
a.  For  they  prevent  suffering. 

&.  And  furnish  labor  to  the  poor, 
c.  And  render  wars  improbable. 

II.  And  promote  social  prosperity. 

1.  By  promoting  intelligence, 
a.  For  they  carry  news. 

&.  And  save  time  for  reading. 

2.  By  promoting  morals, 
a.  For  they  arrest  crime. 

6.  And  make  men  more  charitable. 

7.  Advantages  of  the  Two  Methods. 

Each  method  has  its  own  advantages.  The  analytic 
method  is  the  more  interesting,  as  one  sees  the  truth  grow 
before  his  eyes.  It  is  the  method  of  investigation,  and 
causes  the  reader  to  feel  that  he  is  helping  to  reach  the 
result.  The  synthetic  method  is  more  clear  and  compen- 
dious, and  is  the  natural  way  of  conveying  what  one  has 
fully  mastered. 


22  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIC. 

In  this  section,  on  "The  Arrang^ement  of  Materials," 
we  have  considered  :— 

1,  The  Importance  of  Arrangements* 

2,  The  Parts  of  a  Composition, 

3,  The  Introiluction, 

4,  The  IHscussion. 
5*  The  Conclusion, 

a.  The  Two  Methods  of  Arrangement, 
7.  The  Advantages  of  the  Two  Methods, 


CHAPTEH    ft. 

STYLE. 

1.  Definition  of  Style. 

Style  is  tlie  manner  in  which  thought  is  expressed. 
The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  stylus,  meaning  the 
pointed  instrument  with  which  the  ancients  wrote  on  tab- 
lets covered  with  wax.  The  name  of  the  instrument  was 
soon  transferred  to  the  manner  of  expression,  just  as  we 
say  that  one  has  a  charming  pen. 

When  a  writer  becomes  addicted  to  a  particular  mode  of  express- 
ing his  tliouglits,  his  peculiarities  are  called  Mannerisms :  and  they 
often  lead  to  his  detection,  when  he  writes  anonymously.  Such 
peculiarites  ought  not  to  be  cultivated.  They  indicate  narrowness 
of  mind  or  poverty  of  resources.  The  perfection  of  style  is  to  suit 
the  manner  to  the  matter.  A  good  writer  not  only  says  new  things, 
but  he  says  them  in  a  new  way. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  different  kinds  of  style, 
but  they  have  resulted  in  nothing  better  than  enumeration.  Some  of 
the  most  common  varieties  may  be  mentioned,  though  no  pains  should 
be  taken  to  confine  one's  self  to  any  one.  (1)  The  dry  style  excludes 
all  ornament.  It  aims  only  to  express  the  thoughts  accurately,  with- 
out any  appeal  to  the  sense  of  beauty.  Berkeley  ha.s  been  classed 
as  a  dry  writer.  (2)  The  plain  style  does  not  a^ire  after  ornament, 
but  aims  to  make  a  clear  statement,  using  such  figures  as  illustrate 
without  embellishing  the  thoughts.  Locke  aud  Whately  may  be 
included  among  plain  writers.  (3)  The  neat  style  employs  orna- 
ments, but  very  sparingly.  Its  figures  are  correct;  its  diction  is 
pure ;  its  sentences  are  clear  and  harmonious.     Gray  and  Goldsmith 


24  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

are  neat  writers.  (4)  Tlie  elegant  style  is  more  pretentious,  using 
every  ornament  which  can  beautify,  but  avoiding  every  excess  which 
would  degrade.  Addison  has  been  esteemed  an  elegant  writer,  but 
Macaulay  belongs  more  justly  to  this  class.  (5)  The  florid  style 
runs  to  excess  and  crowds  the  expression  with  superfluous  and 
superficial  ornament,  combining  an  excess  of  adjectives  with  the 
boldest  and  most  highly  colored  imagery.  The  so-called  poems  of 
Ossian  are  illustrations  of  this  style.  (6)  The  bombastic  style  is 
characterized  by  such  an  excess  of  words  and  ornaments  as  to 
become  ridiculous.  Sergeant  Buzfuz'  speech  in  "The  Pickwick 
Papers  "  is  a  fair  example.  Other  varieties  of  style  are  sufficiently 
marked  by  the  adjectives  used  to  describe  them.  They  are  the 
colloquial,  the  laconic,  the  concise,  the  diffuse,  the  abrupt,  the  flow- 
ing, the  quaint,  the  epigrammatic,  the  flowery,  the  feeble,  the  ner- 
vous, the  vehement,  the  affected.  In  fact,  style  is  as  various  as 
character,  of  which  language  is  the  expression.  A  great  French 
writer,  Buflfon,  well  says,  "  Tlie  style  is  tJie  man  himself. ' 

3.  The  Importance  of  Style. 

The  value  of  an  attractive  style  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Many  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  literature  have  been 
made  immortal  by  the  beauty  of  their  style  alone.  Though 
thought  is  the  basis  of  every  great  composition,  it  will 
be  neglected,  unless  style  embalms  it  and  preserves  it  to 
coming  ages. 

"  In  proportion  as  the  excellence  of  the  form  transcends  the  value 
of  the  matter,  does  the  literary  work  gain  perpetuity.    .  .     . 

Indeed,  in  proportion  as  the  very  substance  of  a  literary  work,  the 
thought  it  contains,  becomes  important,  is  it  difficult  for  it  to  claim 
and  hold  a  place  in  literature.  .  .  .  The  very  interest  of  the 
facts  stated  stimulates  further  inquiry,  and  thus  pushes  into  the  back- 
ground those  who  first  contributed  to  it.  The  hard  workers,  the 
investigators  and  compilers,  in  the  fields  of  knowledge,  descend 
by  genesis  only  to  those  who  come  after  them ;  their  discoveries, 
their  theories,  like  wind-sown  flowers,  enrich  many  who  are  ignorant 

of  their  origin There  must  be  in  the  literary  work,  as 

in  the  crystal,  something  which  cannot  be  broken  in  on  without 
loss,  something  in  itself  specific  and  final." — Bascom. 


STYLE.  25 

3.  The  General  Law  of  Style. 

All  the  qualities  of  an  excellent  style  are  implied  in  one 
general  law,  which  may  be  stated  as  follows:  "  That  form 
of  expression  is  most  excellent  which  yields  its  contained 
idea  with  the  least  expenditure  of  mental  power." 

This  law  was  first  suggested  by  Herbert  Spencer  in  his  ingenious 
essay  on  "  The  Philosophy  of  Style."  The  law  is  most  fully  estab- 
lished and  illustrated  in  the  "  Science  of  Rhetoric,"  where  it  is  used 
to  explain  all  the  ordinary  rules  of  style. 

4.  Division  of  this  Chapter. 

The  first  step  in  the  improvement  of  style  is  to  choose 
the  right  words  ;  the  second,  to  combine  them  into  correct 
and  effective  sentences  ;  the  third,  to  group  the  sentences 
into  paragraphs  ;  the  fourth,  to  enrich  the  style  with 
appropriate  figures ;  and  the  fifth,  to  vary  the  expression 
of  our  thoughts.  This  chapter  will,  accordingly,  devote 
a  section  to  each  of  these  topics  : 

(1)  JDietion. 

(2)  Sentences, 

(3)  JParagrajJhs, 

(4)  Figures.    And, 

(5)  The  Variation  of  jExpression, 


SECTION    I> 

DICTION. 

1.  Definition  of  Diction. 

Diction  treats  of  the  selection  and  use  of  words.     The 
word  "diction"  also  means  the  form  of  expression  which 


26  TEE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

a  writer  adopts,  as  when  we  say,  "The  diction  of  this 
writer  is  charming."  The  word  is  here  used  in  the  first 
sense. 


Style  receives  its  character,  in  a  great  degree,  from  the 
words  employed;  for  these,  taken  together,  form  the  whole  com- 
position. The  architect  may  exhaust  his  skill  in  the  arrangement 
of  imperfect  bricks,  without  making  a  structure  like  one  of  polished 
marble.  To  be  mean  in  diction  is  to  impart  meanness  to  the  whole 
production,  while  uoble  words  elevate  and  adorn.  Almost  every 
quality  that  can  be  mentioned  belongs  to  words.  "Words,"  says 
Mirabeau,  "are  things."  Emerson  says  of  Montaigne's  words,  that  if 
you  cut  them,  they  would  bleed.  Coleridge  remarks  that  "  you 
might  as  well  think  of  pushing  a  brick  out  of  a  wall  with  your  fore- 
finger, as  attempt  to  remove  a  word  out  of  any  of  the  finished  pas- 
sages of  Shakespeare."  Volumes  have  been  written  about  the 
morality,  poetry,  •end  wonderful  history  of  words.  Whoever  reads 
the  excellent  books  on  words  by  Trench,  White,  and  Matthews,  will 
be  convinced,  that  the  secret  of  literary  power  is  chiefly  the  art  of 
putting  the  right  word  in  the  right  place. 


2.  Means  of  Acquiring  a  Vocabulary. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  have  a  large  vocabulary ;  for 
this  not  only  gives  variety  to  style,  but  also  enables  a 
writer  to  select  the  right  words  to  express  his  thought. 
Some  rules  for  enlarging  one's  vocabulary  may  be  given. 

(1)  Always  note  a  new  word.  A  young  person  can 
scarcely  read  a  page,  or  converse  with  an  intelligent  friend 
for  an  hour,  without  meeting  with  some  new  word.  Some- 
times the  meaning  will  be  evident  from  the  connection, 
and  sometimes  not ;  but,  in  every  case,  it  is  best  to  make  a 
note  of  the  word,  mentally,  or  if  necessary,  on  paper. 

(2)  Make  constant  use  of  a  dictionary.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice of  many  great  scholars  never  to  allow  a  new  word  to 


STYLE.  27 

pass  without  an  examination,  if  there  be  the  least  doubt 
about  its  origin,  pronunciation,  meaning  or  spelling. 

(3)  Study  etymology.  It  is  useful  to  trace  out  the 
origin,  composition,  and  primary  meaning  of  words.  A 
knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  especially  of  the  former, 
is  helpful  in  this  study.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  many  words  do  not  now  mean  what  they  once 
did,  or  what  their  derivation  would  seem  to  imply. 

(4)  Seek  good  society.  One  who  has  the  advantage 
of  frequent  association  with  intelligent  and  cultivated 
persons,  will  acquire  a  good  vocabulary  without  great 
effort,  by  paying  attention  to  their  language.  Low  com- 
panionship, on  the  other  hand,  reveals  itself  in  one's 
choice  and  use  of  words. 

(5)  Read  the  best  books  oapefully.  No  mere  rules  can 
ever  make  a  good  writer  or  speaker,  unless  he  sees  the 
rules  exemplified  in  models.  Imitation  is  a  principal 
means  of  improvement  in  art.  Caution  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, that  the  model  be  a  good  one,  and  not  followed  in  a 
slavish  spirit. 

3.  The  Essentials  of  Good  Diction. 

The  words  of  any  composition  should  be  pure,  appro- 
priate and  precise.  We  shall,  therefore,  consider  separately, 
(1)  Purity,  (2)  Propriety,  and  (3)  Precision. 

The  terms  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision,  have  been  long 
used,  and,  perhaps,  serve  sufl&ciently  well  to  designate  the  qualities 
which  diction  should  possess.  They  are  figurative  terms,  however, 
and  may  suggest  erroneous  ideas.  A  more  exact  method  of  treat- 
ment would  require  us  to  consider  words  with  regard  to  (1)  their 
familiarity,  (2)  their  length,  (3)  their  inclusion,  and  (4)  their  impli- 
cation. The  general  currency  of  these  terms  has  led  to  their  being 
retained  in  this  work. 


28  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOEIC. 

I.   PURITY. 

1.   Meaning  of  Purity. 

A  word  is  said  to  be  pure  when  it  belongs  to  the  lan- 
guage as  it  is  at  present  used  by  the  best  writers  and 
speakers.  Purity  consists  in  the  use  of  pure  words  only. 
The  Roman  poet  Horace  declared  that  Use  is  the  final 
test  of  language.     Campbell  defines  good  usage  to  be 

1.  Reputable,  or  the  practice  of  intelligent  and  educated 
writers ; 

2.  National,  as  ojiposed  to  provincial  and  foreign  ; 

3.  Present,  or  the  usage  of  the  generation  in  which  one 
lives. 

The  following  extract  from  Campbell's  famous  essay  on  "  Use  as 
tlie  Law  of  Language,"  will  explain  the  reason  of  the  authority 
of  good  usage  :— 

*'  Every  tongue  whatever  is  founded  in  use  or  custom.  Language 
is  purely  a  species  of  fashion,  in  which,  by  the  general  but  tacit 
consent  of  the  people  of  a  particular  state  or  country,  certain  sounds 
come  to  be  appropriated  to  certain  things,  and  certain  ways  of 
inflecting  and  combining  those  sounds  come  to  be  established,  as 
denoting  the  relations  which  subsist  among  the  things  signified. 

**  It  is  not  the  business  of  grammar,  as  some  critics  seem  prepos- 
terously to  imagine,  to  give  law  to  the  fashions  which  regulate  our 
speech.  On  the  contrary,  from  its  conformity  to  these,  and  from 
that  alone,  grammar  derives  all  its  authority  and  value.  For  what 
is  the  grammar  of  any  language  ?  It  is  no  other  than  a  collection 
of  general  observations  methodically  digested,  and  comprising  all 
the  modes  previously  and  independently  established,  by  which  the 
significations,  derivations  and  combinations  of  words  in  that  lan- 
guage are  ascertained.  It  is  of  no  consequence  here  to  what  causes 
originally  these  modes  or  fashions  owe  their  existence,  to  imitation, 
to  reflection,  to  affectation,  or  to  caprice  ;  they  no  sooner  obtain,  and 

become  general,  than  they  are  laws  of  the  language 

Every  single  anomaly  therefore,  though  departing  from  the  rule 
assigned  to  the  other  words  of  the  same  class,  and  on  that  account 


STYLE.  29 

called  an  exception,  stands  on  the  same  basis  on  which  the  rules  of 
the  language  are  founded,  custom  having  prescribed  for  it  a  separate 
rule." 

2.  Barbarisms. 

A  violation  of  Purit}^  is  called  a  Barbarism.  The  fol- 
lowing rules  may  be  given  on  tliis  subject. 

(1)  Avoid  obsolete  words,  or  sucli  as  were  once  in  good 
use,  but  have  ceased  to  be  used  by  the  best  writers  ;  as, 
ycUfjed,  for  called  ;  hei^ns,  for  light  infantry ;  dowle,  for 
feather. 

Some  words  are  apparently  in  a  state  of  transition,  not  wholly 
disused,  yet  gradually  vanishing  from  the  vocabulary  of  the  most 
polished  writers.  Such  are  betwixt,  froward,  hearken,  amongxt, 
whilst,  etc.  No  effort  should  be  made  to  retain  them,  for  their  disuse 
implies  their  uselessness. 

(2)  Avoid  newly-coined  words,  or  such  as  have  not 
received  the  sanction  of  good  writers;  as,  enthused,  loco- 
mote,  orate. 

There  is  often  the  additional  reason  that  newly-coined  words 
may  be  malformations,  to  deter  us  from  using  them.  It  is  true 
that  some  of  the  best  words  in  the  language  have  been  recently 
introduced.  The  words  capability,  continental,  criminality,  originate, 
originality,  and  sentimental  have  been  in  our  language  only  about 
a  century.  Pope  has  well  expressed  the  safe  rule  with  regard  to 
both  old  and  new  words,  in  the  following  lines  of  his  "  Essay  on 
Criticism  " : 

"  In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold; 

Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old  ; 

Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried. 

Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside." 

(3)  Avoid  all  foreign  words,  unless  they  have  been 
naturalized.    This  includes  both  words  from  the  ancient 


30  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

and  modern  languages.  Nothing  is  more  indicative  of 
affectation  and  pedantry  than  a  free  use  of  Latin  and 
French  expressions.  The  more  languages  one  kuows  really 
well,  the  less  will  he  be  inclined  to  display  foreign  phrases, 
and  the  more  strictly  will  he  confine  himself  to  his  own 
language,  when  speaking  to  those  who  understand  no 
other. 

Certain  words  that  have  been  borrowed  from  other  languages, 
liave  become  so  perfectly  Anglicized  that  they  are  properly  regarded 
as  English  words.  These  will  be  more  fully  spoken  of  below.  Their 
use  is  not  a  violation  of  purity. 

(4)  Avoid  all  provincialisms,  or  local  forms  of  expression. 
Almost  every  part  of  the  country  has  such  localisms  ;  as, 
Uicky,  snitSy  hyper. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  ascertain  which  words  are  local,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  national,  since  we  are  inclined  to  regard  as  good 
English,  the  words  which  we  have  heard  spoken  all  our  lives,  and 
hence  seldom  question  them.  Dictionaries  of  Americanisms,  Bart- 
lett's  or  De  Vere's,  are  useful  in  tracing  out  provincialisms  peculiar 
to  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Vulgarisms  are,  for  the  most  part,  provincial,  and  those  which  are 
national  are  proscribed  for  other  than  rhetorical  reasons.  All  low 
or  slang  words  ought  to  be  avoided  as  a  matter  of  morals. 

Colloquialisms,  or  expressions  which  belong  to  the  loose  style  of 
familiar  conversation,  are  generally  out  of  place  in  an  elaborate  com- 
position. They  tend  to  creep  in,  however,  even  when  excluded  with 
a  jealous  vigilance.  Such  words  often  seem  to  impart  vivacity  and 
freshness  to  one's  style,  but  they  cause  it  to  lose  in  dignity  more 
than  it  gains  in  sprightliness.    The  tendency  is  in  a  wrong  direction. 


(5)  Avoid  all  technical  terms,  or  such  as  belong  to 
special  arts  or  sciences.  These  are  usually  known  only  to 
those  who  understand  the  specialties  to  which  they  apply. 


STYLE.  31 

In  dramatic  literature  and  in  books  descriptive  of  characters,  the 
technical  expressions  often  serve  to  explain  some  peculiarity  of 
persons  described.  In  such  cases  technical  terms  may  be  em- 
ployed. When  they  are  addressed  to  technical  persons,  they  are 
much  more  brief  and  intelligible  than  the  words  of  ordinary  use. 


3.  The  Naturalization  of  Words. 

There  are  many  words  of  foreign  origin  in  our  language 
which  have  acquired  a  citizenship  by  their  long  residence. 
Some  of  these  have  not  changed  their  form  ;  as,  verhatim, 
terminus,  omnibus,  fiat,  phenomenon,  auditorium.  Others 
have  changed  their  original  form.  This  has  usually  been 
in  one  of  the  following  ways : 

(1)  By  change  of  spelling;  as,  lionestia,  honesty;  ami- 
citia,  amity  ;  cliirurgeon,  surgeon ;  conditio,  condition. 

(2)  By  change  of  inflection ;  as,  formulw,  formulas ; 
indices,  indexes ;  dogmata,  dogmas. 

(3)  By  change  of  accent ;  as,  adventus,  advent. 

(4)  By  change  of  meaning  ;  as,  character,  lunatic,  syco- 
phant, etc.  These  words  at  first  retain  the  signification 
of  the  original  from  which  they  are  derived,  but  they  grad- 
ually lose  their  first  sense,  and  their  secondary  meaning 
becomes  the  principal  one. 

The  English  language  Is  the  most  composite  of  civilized 
tongues.  It  has  borrowed  from  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  and 
possesses  a  power  of  assimilation  that  is  unparalleled.  This  composite 
character  of  our  language  renders  it  allowable  to  use  words  of  foreign 
origin  more  freely  than  if  it  were  more  organic  and  self -evolved, 
like  the  German. 

4.  The  Formation  of  Words. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  form  a  new  word,  to  desig- 


32  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBia 

nate  a  new  object  or  process.     Some  rules  on  this  point 
will  prove  useful. 

(1)  The  new  word  should  be  necessary.  No  new  word 
ought  to  be  coined,  unless  there  is  an  imperative  need  for 
it.  A  language  is  not  gi-eatly  improved  by  having  many 
words  for  the  same  thing.  We  do  not  need  donate  while 
we  have  give,  or  oi^ate  while  we  have  speah. 

(2)  ft  should  be  readily  intelligible.  This  follows  from 
the  fact  that  only  familiar  words  convey  an  exact  meaning. 
A  word  is  valueless,  unless  it  conveys  some  thought. 

(3)  It  should  follow  the  analogy  of  the  language.  When 
two  elements,  derived  from  different  languages,  as  the 
French  cabUy  and  the  Greek  gram  are  united,  their  result 
is  called  a  hybrid. 

The  so-called  law  of  verbal  formation  is  that  component  parts 
of  a  compound  word  should  be  of  the  same  origin.  Thus  the  Latin 
termination  -ity  and  the  Saxon  -ness  are  affixes  meaning  a  "  state  of 
being,"  Accordingly,  from  the  Latin  stem  felic,  by  adding  the  ending 
-ity,  we  hsLYo  felicity.  In  like  manner,  by  adding  the  endiug  -nes8  to 
the  Saxon  happy,  we  have  liappiness.  In  these  cases  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  use  the  endings  interchangeably.  This  rule  is  not  uni- 
versal, however,  since  Latin  stems  talce  Saxon  endings,  and  Saxon 
stems  Latin  endings,  while  some  words  take  both ;  as,  purity,  pure- 
ness  ;  brevity,  briefness.  In  is  generally  used  with  Latin  stems ;  im, 
with  Saxon  ;  yet  we  have  ■wnconscious  rather  than  inconecioxiB. 

The  following  words  are  not  formed  correctly  : 

Resurrect  is  used  as  meaning  to  raise  again  ;  as,  "  B^e  resurrected 
an  old  theorj\"  As  it  comes  from  re,  again,  and  surgo,  I  rise,  it 
ought  to  mean,  if  anything,  to  rise  again. 

Standpoint  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  point  where  one  stands. 
We  have  such  words  as  stumNijig-blocJc,  block  of  stumbling ;  death-bed, 
bed  of  death ;  dancing-girl,  girl  for  dancing  ;  bread-knife,  knife  for 
bread  ;  but  we  cannot  say,  point  for  stand,  or  point  of  stand,  or  even 
point  to  stand.  Hence  it  is  thought  that  standing -point,  point  for 
standing,  ot  point  of  mew,  is  a  preferable  expression. 

Experimentalize  is  an  awkward  and  unnecessary  formation.    Ex- 


STYLE.  33 

periment  is  a  urb  as  well  as  a  noun,  and  the  ending  -ize  ought  not 
to  be  added.  Jeopardize  also  is  a  malformation.  The  ending  -ize  may 
be  properly  added  to  nouns  and  adjectives ;  as,  equalize,  naturalize, 
moralize,  cwilize. 

Singist,  like  walkist,  talkist,  slwotist,  etc.,  has  been  formed  by  the 
addition  of  the  Greek  ending  -^5^— denoting  the  agent,  or  performer 
of  an  action — to  a  Saxon  stem.  The  proper  Saxon  ending  is  -er,  as 
singer,  walker,  talker,  shooter.  The  ending  -ist  should  be  added  to 
Greek  words ;  as,  telefjraplmt,  pliotograplmt,  philologist,  rather  than 
telegrapher,  photographer,  philologer.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
we  have  geographer  and  biographer,  which  have  become  established 
in  the  language. 

Proven,  though  very  common,  is  a  Scoticism  for  proved,  and 
ought  not  to  be  used. 

Preventative  is  a  malformation  for  preventive. 

Plead,  as  a  past  tense,  is  frequently  used  for  pleaded,  following 
the  analogy  of  read. 

Speciality  for  ^t^cciqMy,  leniency  for  lenity,  firstly  for  first,  enthuse 
for  inspire,  monarchial  for  monarchical,  casuality  for  casualty,  are 
all  violations  of  the  best  usage  in  the  formation  of  words. 


II.   PROPRIETY. 

1.  Meaning  of  Propriety. 

Propriety  consists  in  using  words  in  their  proper  sense. 
Here,  as  in  the  case  of  purity,  good  use  is  the  principal 
test  of  diction.  It  matters  little  what  the  primary  ele- 
ments of  a  word  signify,  or  what  the  meaning  of  a  word 
has  been.  We  must  either  use  the  words  as  others  under- 
stand them,  or  violate  propriety. 

Language  is  somewhat  capricious  in  its  changes.  The  word 
derk,  for  example,  in  the  Middle  Ages  meant  a  clergyman ;  by 
Chaucer,  it  is  used  to  designate  a  student  at  a  university ;  in  later 
times,  it  was  applied  to  a  keeper  of  accounts ;  at  present,  it  means  a 
person  who  is  employed  as  a  salesman.  Prevent  means,  etymologi- 
cally,  to  go  before  ;  as  in  the  passage,  "  I  prevented  the  dawning  of 
the  morning." — Psalm  119  :  147.  Now  it  means  to  hinder.  The 
word  let  once  meant  to  hinder;  but  now  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to 


34  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIC. 

allow,  the  opposite  of  its  ancient  meaning.  Edify  primarily  signified 
to  build  up,  as  a  liouse  is  built ;  but  now  it  is  applied  only  to  men- 
tal improvement.  Painful  was  once  applied  to  that  which  required 
the  expenditure  of  pains,  or  effort,  as  a  "  painful  sermon,"  Now  it 
refers  to  that  which  caua|es  a  sensation  of  pain,  as  a  "  painful 
wound." 

2.  Kules  for  Propriety. 

Although  a  writer  must  use  his  own  judgment  in  each 
particular  case,  and  consult  specific  authorities, — such  as 
dictionaries  and  examples  by  the  best  authoi'^ — a  few  rules 
may  be  of  service  in  choosing  appropriate  words. 

(1)  Avoid  confounding  words  from  the  same  radical. 
Such  words  are  called  paronymous  or  conjugate  words. 
They  do  not  always  mean  the  same  thing.  Thus  observa- 
tion signifies  the  act  or  habit  of  noticing  ;  as,  "  A  man  of 
observation^^  Observance,  the  celebration  of  anything;  as, 
*'  The  observance  of  the  Sabbath."  -  We  should  not  say, 
"  observation  of  the  Sabbath."  Yet  we  may  say,  the  man 
observes  [notices]  an  action,  or  observes  [celebrates]  the 
Sabbath. 

The  following  words  should  be  carefully  distinguished. 

Construe  and  Construct  are  quite  frequently  confounded.  A 
boy  constructs  a  sentence  when  he  makes  it.  He  construes  it  when 
he  explains  its  grammatical  structure. 

Conscience  and  Consciousness  both  imply  a  knowing  together, 
but  the  first  is  restricted  to  the  moral  sense  which  distinguishes 
between  right  and  wrong  actions  ;  the  second  is  used  to  signify  the 
knowledge  of  self-existence  and  of  mental  action  in  general. 

Falseness,  Falsity  and  Falsehood,  are  all  formed  from  the  word 
false,  but  differ  as  follows  ;  falseness  is  applied  to  persons  only,  and 
implies  a  deceptive  character ;  falsity  is  the  abstract  quality  of 
untruthfulness;  &  falsehood  is  an  untrue  assertion. 

Contemptible  and  Contemptuous  differ  in  this;  contemptible 
means  that  which  deserves  contempt,  as  a  contemptible  act ;  co7i- 
temptuous  means  filled  with  contempt,  as  a  contemptuous  reply. 


STYLE.  35 

Neglect  and  Negligence  mean  respectively  an  act  and  a  habit  of 
carelessness ;  as,  **  I  missed  the  train  by  my  neglect  to  notice  the 
time  of  day."     "  The  house  is  dilapidated  through  negligence" 

Predict  and  Predicate  mean  respectively,  foretell  and  assert. 
The  word  "  predicate  "  is  also  used  erroneously  in  the  sense  oi  found 
or  base ;  as,  "He  predicated  his  action  on  a  misconception  of  my 
meaning." 

Respectfully  and  Respectively  are  occasionally  confounded.  Let- 
ters are  sometimes  closed  with  the  expression,  "Yours  respectively." 


(2)  Use  words  in  their  accepted  sense.  This  requires 
that  we  abtcich  to  every  word  only  such  a  meaning  as  will 
be  generally  understood  to  belong  to  it.  Thus,  the  proper 
meaning  of  transpire  is  to  breathe  through,  and  so  to  be- 
come known.  It  is  sometimes  erroneously  used  to  signify 
the  same  as  occur.  It  is  correct  to  say,  ''The  verdict  of 
the  jury  has  not  yet  transpired."  It  is  incorrect  to  say, 
'''  The  parade  will  transpire," 

The  following  are  given  as  examples  of  words  commonly  misused 
by  careless  writers. 

Couple  is  often  used  for  two;  as,  "He  gave  me  a  couple  of 
peaches."    The  word  means  two  things  joined  together  or  paired. 

Aggravate  is  sometimes  used  for  irritate;  as,  "His  manner  is 
extremely  aggravating."  The  proper  sense  of  the  word  is  to  add 
weight  to ;  as,  "  You  only  aggravate  the  wrong  by  your  conduct." 

Character  is  used  as  equivalent  to  reputation.  What  a  man  is, 
makes  his  character  ;  what  he  is  tJiought  to  he,  determines  his  repu- 
tation. 

Demean  is  used  in  the  sonse  of  debase ;  as,  '-He  de^neaned  him- 
self by  his  action."  It  is  properly  equivalent  to  deport  or  behave, 
and  is  not  connected  with  the  word  mean. 

Allow  does  not  mean  to  assert;  as,  "He  alloiced  that  I  was 
wron^." 

Calculate  does  not  express  the  same  meaning  as  intended,  or  fit ; 
as,  in  this  sentence,  "  Sensational  newspapers  are  cakidated  to  in- 
jure the  morals  of  the  yovmg."  The  word  means  to  compute,  to 
reckon,  as  by  figures. 


36 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 


Mutual  means  reciprocal,  not  common.  Hence  two  persons  may 
be  mutual  friends,  but  A  cannot  be  a  mutual  friend  to  B  and  C. 

Emblem  is  sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  sentiment  ov  meaning. 
The  emblem  of  purity  is  the  lily,  but  it  is  absurd  to  say,  "The 
emblem  of  the  lily  is  purity." 

Except  is  often  used  for  unless;  as,  "He  would  not  go  except 
I  would.  Without  is  used  wrongly  in  the  same  way.  Except  and 
without  are  prepositions  and  require  an  objective  case.  Unless  is  a 
conjunction. 

As  is  often  used  for  like,  and  like  for  as.  As  should  be  used 
when  a  verb  is  expressed;  as,  "  He  sings  as  I  do."  Like  should  be 
used  when  a  verb  is  not  expressed  or  understood  after  it,  as,  "  He 
works  like  a  man,"  Another  rule  is  that  like  may  be  used  whenever 
it  would  be  proper  to  supply  "  to  "  after  it. 

Beside  is  frequently  misused  for  besides.  The  first  is  a  preposi- 
tion, the  second  an  adverb.     "  Two  besides  us  sat  beside  the  table." 

Care  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  prepositions  with  verbs,  nouns, 
and  adjectives,  to  select  those  which  usage  has  sanctioned.  The 
following  list  from  Angus  will  be  of  use  for  reference : 


Accord  VJith  (neuter)  to  (active). 

Accuse  of  crime,  by  one's  friend. 

Acquit  persons  of. 

Aflinity  to,  or  between. 

Adapted  to  a  thing,  or  for  a  purpose. 

Agreeable  to  ;  agree  with  persons,  and 

to  things. 
Attend  to  (listen),  upon  (wait). 
Averse   to,   when   describing    feeling, 

from  when  describing  an  act   or 

state. 
Bestow  upon. 
Boast  of. 
Call  on. 
Change  for. 

Confer  on  (give)  with  (converse). 
Confide  in,  when   intransitive,  when 

transitive,  confide  it  to. 
Conformable  to;  so  the  A'orb  and  n<^- 

verb.     Addison    sometimes    uses 

loith. 
Compliance  with. 
Consonant  to,  sometimes  witJi. 
Convenient  to,  or  for. 
Conversant  with  persons;    in  affairs: 

about  subjects. 
Correspond  with  (by  letter)  to  (similar 

thingsX 


Dependent  on,  upon. 

Derogatory  to  a  person,  or  thing ;  we 

derogate /j'om  authority. 
Die  of,  or  by. 
Differ  from,  difference  with  a  perscn,  or 

between  things. 
Difficulty  in. 
Diminution  of. 
Disappointed  of  what  we  do  not  get ; 

and  in  it  when  we  get  it  and  it  fails 

to  answer  our  expectations. 
Disapprove  of. 
Discouragement  to. 
Dissent/rom. 
Eager  in. 
Exception    is  taken    to    statements ; 

sometimes   against— the  verb  has 

eometimes/rom. 
Expert  at  or  in. 
Fall  under. 
Free  from. 
From  at  or  on. 
Glad  of  something  gained,  and  of  or  at, 

what  befalls  another. 
Independent  of. 
Insist  upon. 
Made  of,  for. 
Marry  to. 


BTYLE. 


37 


Martyr /c^r  a  cause,  to  a  disease. 

Need  of. 

Notice  of. 

Observance  of. 

Prejudicial  to. 

Prejudice  against. 

Profit  by. 

Provide /or,  witJi,  against. 

Recreant  to,  from. 

Reconcile  to. 

Replete  with. 

Resemblance  to. 

Resolve  on. 


Reduce  to  a  state,  and  under  subjection. 

Regard  for,  or  to. 

Smile  at,  upon. 

Swerve  from. 

Taste  of,  what  is  actually  enjoyed,  for 
what  we  have  the  capacity  of  en- 
joying. 

Think  of  or  on. 

Thirst  for,  after. 

True  to  (faithful)  of  (predicable). 

Wait  on  (serve)  at  (a  place) /or  (await). 

Worthy  of. 


Many  expressions  have  become  stereotyped,  so  that  a  change 
would  violate  propriety.    Bain  mentions  the  following  : 


Use  or  employ  means. 
Take  steps. 
Acquire  knowledge. 
Take  degrees. 
Contract  habits. 
Lay  up  treasure. 
Obtain  rewards. 
Win  prizes. 
Oain  celebrity. 
Arrive  at  honors. 


Conduct  affairs. 
Espovse  a  side. 
Interpose  authority. 
Pursue  a  course. 
Turn  to  account. 
Serve  for  a  warning. 
Bear  malice. 
Profess  principles. 
Cultivate  acquaintance. 
Pass  over  in  silence. 


III.  PRECISION. 


1.  Meaning  of  Precision. 

Precision  (from  the  Latin  prcecidere,  to  cut  off)  requires 
that  we  use  such  words  as  cut  off  all  that  we  do  not  mean 
to  express.  If,  for  example,  we  wish  to  say,  "He  has 
sufficient  money,"  but  say  instead,  "He  has  enough 
money,"  we  express  more  than  we  intend.  Sufficient 
means  what  one  actually  needs  ;  enough,  what  one  desires. 
The  miser  has  sufficient,  but  he  never  has  enough.  The 
precise  writer  chooses  words  which  express  what  he  means 
without  any  addition  or  diminution. 

Words  which  mean  nearly  the  same  are  called  Synonyms. 
Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  words  in  our  language  which  mean 


38  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

precisely  the  same.  There  is  in  every  instance  some  slight  shade 
of  distinction  which  gives  a  word  its  own  peculiar  right  to  exist. 
It  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  mental  association,  wholly  indefin- 
able and  inexplicable,  but  the  quick  sense  of  a  cultivated  reader  at 
once  detects  some  difference  from  all  other  words.  Great  writers 
and  speakers  have  usually  been  masters  of  synonyms.  Robert  Hall 
was  peculiarly  fastidious  in  his  choice  of  words.  John  Foster  wrote 
his  essay  on  "  Decision  of  Character"  with  a  painful  slowness.  "  He 
would  spend  whole  days  on  a  few  short  sentences,  passing  each 
word  under  his  concentrated  scrutiny,  so  that  each,  challenged  and 
examined,  took  its  place  in  the  structure  like  an  inspected  soldier  in 
the  ranks."  Fox  once  said  of  William  Pitt,  "  Though  I  am  myself 
never  at  a  loss  for  a  word,  Pitt  not  only  has  a  word  but  thd^woxdi  to 
express  his  meaning."  Thomas  Moore's  easy -flowing  verse  was  not 
the  spontaneous  gushing  of  a  ceaseless  fountain,  as  it  seems  to  the 
reader.  Irving  says  that  when  riding  with  the  poet  in  Paris,  the 
coach  went  into  a  rut,  sending  the  inmates  against  the  roof  with  a 
bump.  "By  Jove,  Fve  got  it!"  said  Moore.  "Got  what?"  said 
Irving.  "  Why,"  was  the  reply,  "that  word  I've  been  hunting  for 
six  weeks  to  complete  my  last  song  !  " 

The  works  on  synonyms  by  Crabbe.  Graham,  and  Whately,  are 
serviceable  if  carefully  used.  Roget's  "Thesaurus"  is  a  help  in 
suggesting  the  right  word.  The  best  work  on  the  subject  is  Smith's 
"  Synonyms  Discriminated." 

2.  Rules  for  Precision. 

The  rules  for  Precision,  like  those  for  Propriety,  are 
necessarily  of  a  very  general  character.  The  following 
will  serve  to.  point  out  how  to  guard  against  a  violation  of 
Precision. 

(1)  Distinguish  between  generic  and  specific  words. 
A  generic  word  applies  to  a  whole  class ;  a  specific  word, 
to  a  part  of  the  class  only.  Thus,  praise  is  the  general 
word  for  approbation,  may  be  sincere  or  insincere,  and  is 
bestowed  by  any  one  on  any  other.  Commendation  is  a 
specific  word  for  approbation  which  is  sincere,  and  is  the 
encouragement  given  by  a  superior. 


8TYLE.  39 

Not  only  precision  but  also  vividness  of  style  is  secured  by  the 
use  of  specific  rather  than  generic  words.  The  more  general  a  term 
is,  the  more  difl&cult  it  is  to  form  an  image  of  it.  It  is  easy  to  picture 
to  the  mind  a  specific  and  concrete  object,  such  as  a  particular  tree, 
mountain,  or  house,  that  we  have  seen.  It  is  possible  to  express  a 
thought  specifically  or  generally,  as  the  writer  chooses.  Compare 
the  following  forms  of  expression.  ' '  In  proportion  as  the  manners, 
customs  and  amusements  of  a  nation  are  cruel  and  barbarous,  the 
regulation  of  their  penal  codes  will  be  severe."  "According  as  men 
delight  in  battles,  bull-fights  and  combats  of  gladiators,  so  will  they 
punish  by  hanging,  burning  and  crucifying."  The  former  is  gen- 
eral ;  the  latter,  specific.  The  former  is  more  dignified;  the  latter, 
more  vivid. 

The  most  specific  words  in  English  are  those  of  Saxon  origin, 
while  the  general  words  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Latin.  Com- 
pare the  words  in  the  following  list : 


Saxon.  Latin. 

Creeping  "| 

Walking   [  ^Motion. 
Ridins 


iding      I 
unning  J 


Running 

Theft 

Robbery  {^  ^crime. 

Killing 

Lying 


Saxon.        Latin. 

Black    ^ 

Blue 

Red        Y  =  Color. 

Green 

Brown  J 

Hissing     "1 

Grunting 

Groaning  \  =  Sound. 

Speaking 

Singing 


(2)  Distinguish  between  the  different  degrees  of  in- 
tensity expressed  by  words.  Temper  mice  is  often  used  in 
the  sense  of  abstinence.  The  former  implies  a  reasonable 
restraint  upon  indulgence ;  the  latter,  a  total  disuse. 
They  mean  the  same  only  when  the  least  indulgence  is 
hurtful. 

The  following  distinctions  are  worthy  of  notice  : 

Repentance  and  Penitence  differ  in  both  intensity  and  duration. 
We  repent  even  of  trivial  matters  :  we  are  penite.nt  only  for  our  sins. 
We  repent  of  an  act  but  once  ;  we  are  penitent  for  it  longr  after. 

Avow,  Acknowledge  and  Confess  express  the  following  shades 


40  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIG. 

of  meaning ;  to  avow  is  to  assert  witli  some  satisfaction  in  the  state- 
ment ;  to  acknowledge  is  to  admit  as  true  that  which  is  disagreeable 
to  own  ;  to  confess  is  to  admit  a  fault  or  crime.  "  A  legislator  avows 
his  opposition  to  some  measure  of  the  executive,  and  is  applauded  ; 
a  gentleman  acknowledges  his  mistake  and  is  forgiven ;  a  prisoner 
confesses  the  crime  with  which  he  is  charged,  and  is  punished." 

Design,  Purpose  and  Intention  differ  as  follows ;  a  design  em- 
braces many  objects,  and  its  attainability  depends  on  the  nature  of 
the  case  ;  a  purpose  has  one  object,  is  definite,  and  its  steadiness 
depends  on  the  temper  of  the  mind;  an  intention  is  vague,  and  may 
be  delayed.  The  man  of  purpose  pushes  on  his  plans  ;  the  man  of 
intention  may  consider  them  long  before  his  intention  becomes  a 
purpose. 

Hasten  and  Hurry  both  imply  a  quick  movement,  but  hurry 
always  adds  the  idea  of  excitement,  perturbation  or  irregularity, 
while  hasten  conveys  only  the  notion  of  rapid  movement. 

Abundance  and  Plenty.  The  former  means  an  overflowing  sup- 
ply, as  its  derivation  from  tlie  Latin  abundo,  to  overflow,  suggests. 
Plenty  means  a  sufl&cient  supply,  such  as  makes  full  without  over- 
flowing. 

Industrious,  Laborious  and  Diligent.  The  industrious  man 
works  busily  ;  the  laborious  man  works  with  close  application  ;  the 
diligent  man  works  from  choice.  One  may  be  industrious  without 
being:  laborious  or  diligent,  diligent  without  being  laborious. 

Pride  and  Vanity.  The  proud  man  esteems  himself;  the  vain 
man  desires  the  esteem  of  others.  Dean  Swift  declares  that  a  man 
may  be  too  p7'oud  to  be  vain. 


(3)  Distinguish  between  words  which  have  respect- 
ively an  active  op  passive  meaning.  Thus,  ahiUty  is 
active,  and  means  power  to  do  ;  capacity  is  passive,  and 
means  power  to  receive. 

Force  and  Strength.  Force  is  power  exerted,  or  active.  Strength 
J3  internal,  dependent  on  organization,  and  measured  by  its  power 
of  resistance.  Strength,  however,  may  be  a  cause  of  force,  as  when 
a  man  of  strength  exerts  himself  in  producing  a  force. 

Forgetfulness  and  Oblivion  differ  in  this  :  the  former  refers  to 
the  person  who  forgets ;  the  other,  to  the  state  of  the  thing  v/hich  is 
forgotten.     We  blame  a  man  for  forgetfulness,  but  do  not  speak  of 


STYLE.  41 

Mm  as  guilty  of  (Mimon.  Forgotten  actions  pass  into  dblivion,  but 
not  into  forgetfulness. 

Truth  and  Veracity.  TrutJi  belongs  to  propositions ;  veracity,  to 
persons.  The  truth  of  a  statement  is  admitted  when  the  veracity  of 
its  author  is  unquestioned.  We  should  not  speak  of  the  truth  of  a 
historian,  or  the  veracity  of  history ;  but  the  truth  of  history  and  the 
veracity  of  the  historian. 

(4)  Distinguish  between  words  which  are  negative 
and  those  which  are  privative.  A  word  is  negative  when 
it  denies  the  existence  of  a  quality;  privative  when  it 
simply  implies  its  absence.  Thus,  helief,  disbelief  and 
iinhelief,  are,  respectively,  positive,  negative  and  privative. 
Belief  implies  acceptance  of  a  statement;  disbelief,  an 
absolute  denial  of  its  truth  ;  unbelief,  the  mere  absence  of 
belief  without  denial. 

Distrust  and  Suspicion.  When  one  distrusts  another,  he  im])utes 
no  good  to  him  ;  when  he  suspects  another,  he  imputes  positive  evil 
to  him.  Distrust  is  a  want  of  faith  in  any  one ;  suspicion  is  a  belief 
that  one  is  not  trustworthy. 

Disadvantage  and  Injury.  A  disadvantage  is  the  absence  of  a 
good  ;  an  injury  is  a  positive  evil. 

Hopeless  and  Desperate.  A  man  is  Jwpeless  when  he  is  without 
present  hope  ;  he  is  desperate  when  he  is  not  only  hopeless  but  also 
surrounded  with  evils  which  shut  off  all  hope  in  the  future. 

(5)  Avoid  the  use  of  equivocal  words.     An  equivocal 

word  is  one  which  has  more  than  one  possible  meaning  in 
the  place  where  it  is  used.  Thus,  "  or "  is  used  equivo- 
cally in  this  sentence :  "  The  Greeks  worshipped  Zeus,  or 
Jupiter."  To  those  who  are  ignorant  that  Zeus  and  Jupi- 
ter are  two  names  for  one  divinity,  this  might  seem  to 
mean  that  the  Greeks  worshipped  eitJier  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

There  are  few  words  in  our  language  which  have  only  one 
meaning.    Some  have  nearly  a  score  of  different  senses.    The  mean- 


4^  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

ing  intended  by  tlie  writer  must  be  inferred  from  tlie  connection. 
There  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  this  when  the  word  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  throughout  a  sentence  and  in  sentences  near  one  another. 
Obscurity  arises,  however,  if  the  same  word  has  two  different  mean- 
ings in  the  same  sentence. 

In   this    section    on    "Diction,"    we   have    consid- 
ered : — 

1.  The  Definition  of  JHction, 

2.  The  Means  of  Acquiring  a  Vocabulary, 

3.  The  Essentials  of  Good  Diction, 

I,   PURITY, 

1,  The  Meaning  of  JPurity, 

2,  Barbarisms, 

3,  The  Naturalization  of  Words, 

4,  The  Formation  of  Words, 

II.  PJROPMIETY. 

1,  The  Meaning  of  Propriety, 

2,  Rules  for  Pro2)riety. 

III,  PRECISION. 

1,  The  Meaning  of  Precision. 

2.  Rules  for  Precision. 


SECTION    n. 

SENTENCES. 

1,    Definitions. 

The  following  definitions  should  be  fixed  in  the  mind. 
(1)  A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  so  combined 
as  to  express  a  thought. 

A  thought  contains  three  elements :  (1)  the  object  about  which 
we  think ;  (2)  the  class  or  quality  with  which  we  compare  the  ob- 
ject ;  and  (3)  the  assertion^  either  affirmative  or  negative,  of  a  real 


STYLE.  43 

or  possible  relation  between  these  two  elements.  For  example,  I 
see  an  object  lying  on  my  table.  I  notice  that  there  are  certain 
qualities.  Thus  far  there  is  no  thought.  If,  now,  I  mentally  decide 
that  one  of  these  qualities  belongs  to  the  object,  I  have  a  thought. 
The  primary  object  may  be  some  state  of  the  mind  as  well  as  an 
external  thing. 

The  expression  of  the  thought  is  a  sentence.  I  name  the  object 
ink  and  the  quality  Uack.  If  I  put  these  together,  thus,  "  Ink 
black,"  I  have  no  sentence;  just  as  when  I  merely  noticed  the  object 
and  the  quality  I  had  no  thought.  If  I  assert  a  relation  between 
ink  and  the  color  Uack  by  using  the  word  is,  I  have  the  sentence, 
"  Ink  is  black."  If  I  have  in  mind  the  color  green,  and  assert  that 
there  is  the  relation  of  disaorreement  between  the  object  and  the 
quality,  "  Ink  is  not  green,"  this  also  is  a  sentence. 

These  three  elements  of  a  thought  and  of  a  sentence  correspond 
as  follows  : 

1.  The  tiling  thought  about  =  the  Subject ; 

2.  The  quality  or  class  compared  with  it  =  the  Predicate  ; 

3.  The  connection  between  them  =  the  Copula. 

This  is  the  logical  analysis  of  a  sentence.  The  common  gram- 
matical analysis  divides  the  sentence  into  (1)  the  Subject,  or  thing 
spoken  about ;  and  (2)  the  Predicate,  or  what  is  said  of  the  subject. 

(2)  A  Simple  Sentence  expresses  a  single  thought.  It 
consists  of  one  subject  and  one  predicate  connected  by  a 
copula ;  as,  "  Man  is  mortal. " 

(3)  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  sentences  of  equal  importance,  whose  parts  are 
either  expressed  or  understood;  as,  '^The  earth  is  full  of 
beauty  and  the  sky  is  full  of  grandeur."  Or,  "  The  sky 
and  the  earth  are  full  of  beauty  and  grandeur."  Or, 
''The  sky  and  the  earth  are  full  of  beauty."  Or,  "The 
sky  is  full  of  beauty  and  grandeur." 

(4)  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  sim- 
ple sentences  so  combined  that  one  depends  upon  another 
to  complete  its  meaning;  as,  "When  spring  comes,  the 
flowers    will    bloom."    Here    the  words    "when  spring 


44  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIG. 

comes,"  are  dependent  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence  for  the 
completion  of  their  meaning. 

(5)  A  Clause  is  a  separate  part  of  a  complex  sentence, 
as  the  words  "  when  spring  comes,"  in  the  last  example. 

(6)  A  Phrase  consists  of  two  or  more  words  not  includ- 
ing a  finite  verb,  and  does  not  express  a  thought;  as, 
"  By  constant  effort;  to  speak  truly  ;  desirous  of." 

(7)  An  Expression  is  here  used,  for  convenience,  as 
equivalent  to  a  word,  a  phrase  or  a  clause. 

2.  Division  of  the  Subject. 

Having  considered  the  choice  and  use  of  words,  we 
should  now  study  the  best  modes  of  combining  them. 

There  are  several  degrees  of  excellence  in  the  structure 
of  sentences,  as  indicated  by  the  following  qualities : 

1.  A  sentence  should  conform  to  the  principles  of  gram- 
matical Codieoi'd, 

2.  It  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  have  perfect  Clear- 
ness, 

3.  It  should  be  so  framed  as  to  have  Unity, 

4.  It  should  possess  Energy.    And, 

5.  When  possible,  it  should  have  a  pleasing  effect  upon 
the  ear  by  its  Harmony, 

We  shall  treat  of  each  of  these  qualities  in  order. 

Concord  belongs  to  Grammar  rather  than  to  Rhetoric,  but  the 

insuflBcient  knowledge  of  grammatical  principles  often  brought  to 
the  study  of  Rhetoric,  is  a  practical  reason  for  offering  a  few  hints 
on  the  subject  here.  A  brief  review  of  some  of  the  most  important 
rules  of  Syntax  in  connection  with  their  application  in  writing,  will 
not  be  irksome  to  good  grammarians,  while  it  will  prove  of  incal- 
culable advantage  to  those  who  have  not  mastered  these  rules. 


STYLE.  45 

I.  CONCORD. 

1.  Rules  for  Simple  Sentences. 

The  following  rules  are  framed,  to  guard  against  some 
of  the  most  common  violations  of  concord. 

(1)  Attend  to  the  agreement  of  the  verb  and  its  sub- 
ject. The  agreement  of  a  verb  and  its  subject  is  often 
destroyed  by  confusing  (1)  collective  and  common  nouns  ; 
(2)  foreign  and  English  nouns ;  (3)  compound  and  sim- 
ple subjects ;  (4)  real  and  apparent  subjects.  The  fol- 
lowing illustrations  explain  these  distinctions. 

(1)  A  Collective  Noun  denotes  a  number  of  individuals  taken 
together  in  a  class ;  as,  army,  regiment.  When  tlie  individuals  are 
made  especially  prominent,  a  plural  verb  is  used;  as,  "The  class 
are  all  noted  for  study. "  When  the  idea  of  the  class  as  a  unit  is 
most  prominent,  without  reference  to  the  individuals,  a  singular 
verb  should  be  used;  as,  "  The  army  was  defeated."  Both  numbers 
of  the  verb  may  be  correctly  used  in  the  same  sentence;  as,  "The 
faculty,  who  are  impartial  judges,  has  decided  the  question." 

(2)  Many  nouns  of  foreign  origin  retain  their  foreign  plural. 
In  this  case  the  plural  verb  should  be  used  with  the  foreign  plural, 
even  when  the  form  seems  to  require  a  singular  verb ;  as,  "  The 
criteria  of  usefulness  are  these  ; "  not,  "  is  these," 

The  following  partial  list  of  words  with  foreign  plurals  is 
worthy  of  careful  attention. 


Latin. 


Addendum,  addenda. 
Alumna,  alumcas.    (Fem.) 
Alummis,  alumni.    (Masc.) 
Apex,  apices. 
Appendix,  appendices.* 
Aquarium,  aquaria. 
Axis,  axes. 
Bapis,  bases. 
Calculus,  calculi. 
Calyx,  calyces.* 
Ccntumvir,  centumviri. 

Words  marked  thus  *  have  a  regular  plural  in  s  also. 


Cloaca,  cloacse. 
Crisis,  crises. 
Cumulus,  cumuli. 
Curriculum,  curricula. 
Datum,  data. 
Decemvir,  decemviri. 
Desideratum,  desiderata. 
Dictum,  dicta. 
Effluvium,  effluvia. 
Emporium,  eraporia. 
Erratum,  errata. 


16 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 


Latin. — Continued. 


Focus,  foci. 
Foramen,  foramina. 
Formula,  formulae.* 
Fulcrum,  fulcra.* 
Fuugu?,  fungi.* 
Genus,  genera. 
Gymnasium,  gymnasia. 
Herbarium,  herbaria.* 
Hippopotamus,  hippopotanu.* 
Ignis  fatuus,  ignes  fatui. 
Lamina,  laminae. 
Larva,  larvae. 
Magus,  magi. 
Maximum,  maxima. 
Memorandum,  memoranda. 
Minimum,  minima. 
Momentum,  Momenta. 
Nebula,  nebulae. 
Nucleus,  nuclei. 


Oasis,  oases. 
Ovum,  ova. 
Papilla,  papillae. 
Polypus,  polypi.* 
Radius,  radii.* 
Rhombus,  rhombi.* 
Rostrum,  rostra. 
Sarcophagus,  sarcophagL 
Scholium,  schoUa.* 
Sensorium,  sensoria.* 
Spectrum,  spectra. 
Speculum,  specula. 
Stadium,  stadia. 
Stamen,  stamina. 
Stimulus,  stimuli. 
Stratum,  strata. 
Terminus,  termini. 
Vertebra,  vertebrae. 


Obkek. 


Analysis,  analyses. 
Antithesis,  antitheses. 
Aphelion,  Aphelia. 
Automaton,  automata. 
Cantharis,  cantharides. 
Chrysalis,  chrysalides. 
Criterion,  criteria.* 
Diaeresis,  diaereses. 
Helix,  helices. 


Hypothesis,  hypotheses. 
Metamorphosis,  metamorphoses. 
Parenthesis,  parentheses. 
Phasis,  Phases. 
Phenomenon,  phenomena. 
Stoma,  stomata. 
Synthesis,  syntheses. 
Thesis,  theses. 


French. 


Aid-de-camp,  aids-dc-camp. 
Beau,  beaux. 

Billet-doux,  billets-doux. 
Flambeau,  flambeaux. 
Gen-d'arme,  gen-d'armes.* 
Jet  d'eau,  jets  d'eau. 
Madame,  meedames.* 


Monsieur,  meseieura. 
Morceau,  morceaux. 
Plateau,  plateaux. 
Rouleau,  rouleaux. 
Savant,  savans. 
Tableau,  tableaux. 


Italian. 


Banditto,  banditti. 
Cicerone,  ciceroni. 
Conversazione,  conversazioni. 
Improvisatore,  improvisatori. 
Libretto,  libretti. 


Scudo,  scudi. 
Soprana,  soprane. 
Soprano,  soprani. 
Virtuoso,  virtuoBi. 


STYLE. 


47 


The  following  have  two  plurals  with  different  significations, 

wliicli  may  be  found  Id  a  dict-ionaiy. 


Brother,  brethren,  brothers. 
Die,  dice,  dies. 
Genius,  genii,  geniuses. 
Index,  indices,  indexes. 
Medium,  media,  mediums. 


Pea,  peas,  pease, 
Penny,  pennies,  pence. 
Phalanx,  phalanges,  phalanxes. 
Stamen,  stamens,  stamina. 
Vortex,  vortices,  vortexes. 


(3)  When  a  sentence  with  one  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects, 
these  taken  together  are  called  the  Compound  Subject,  as  in  tliis 
sentence  :  "  The  rose  and  the  lily  are  beautiful  flowers."  When  the 
words  denote  different  things,  and  are  connected  by  and,  as  in  the 
example,  the  verb  should  be  plural.  When  the  words  denote  the 
same  thing,  or  are  connected  by  or,  the  verb  should  be  singular ;  as, 
"The  Secretary  and  Treasurer  is  a  trustworthy  man."  "The  lily 
or  the  rose  is  a  beautiful  object."  But,  "The  Secretary  and  the 
Treasurer  [two  different  persons,  as  shown  by  tlie  repetition  of  the 
article  'the']  are  trustworthy  men," 

(4)  When  the  same  verb  has  more  than  one  subject  of  different 
persons  or  numbers,  it  agrees  with  the  most  prominent  in  thought ; 
as,  "He,  and  not  you,  «s  wrong,"  Here  the  real  subject  is  "he," 
"you"  being  the  subject  of  a  verb  understood  in  the  elliptical 
sentence  thrown  between  the  real  subject  and  its  verb.  When  there 
is  no  special  prominence,  tbe  verb  agrees  with  its  nearest  subject ; 
as,  **  Whether  he  or  lam  prepared," 


(2)  Distinguish  between  the  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple of  strong  verbs.  No  mistake  is  more  common  than 
tlie  confusion  of  these  parts  of  the  verb,  so  frequently  the 
same,  and  yet  in  many  instances  cfifferent.  Thus,  we  often 
hear,  "  He  would  have  toent"  for  "He  would  have  gone." 
*'He  had  drohe,"  for  "He  had  Irolcen." 

Very  close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  so-called  strong  or 
irregular  verbs  of  our  language.  Lists  are  printed  in  most  gram- 
mars, and  the  principal  parts  are  given  under  the  form  for  the  pres- 
ent tense  in  the  dictionaries.  It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to 
require  the  principal  parts  of  the  most  irregular  of  these  verbs,  as 
an  exercise. 


48  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC . 

(3)  Distinguish  between  transitive  and  intransitive 
verbs.  The  verbs  lie  and  lay,  sit  and  set,  rise  and  raise 
are  often  confounded.  We  lie  down,  sit  on  a  chair,  and 
rise  from  our  seat.  We  lay  down  the  book,  set  a  chair 
aside,  and  raise  the  window. 

An  Intransitive  verb  takes  no  object,  as  in  the  examples  above. 
A  transitive  verb  takes  an  object.  Tlie  three  verbs  mentioned 
above  are  so  frequently  misused,  that  their  principal  parts  should  be 
committed  to  memory.     They  are : 

iNTBANsrnvB.  1  Transixtvb. 

Lie,  lay,  lain.  Lay,  laid,  laid. 

Rise,  rose,  risen.  Eaise,  raised,  raised. 

Sit,  sat,  sat.  I  Set,  set,  set. 


(4)  Distinguish   between  the   use  of  Shall   and  Will. 

Shall  is  used,  in  direct  statement,  with  the  first  person,  to 
express  a  simple  future  action  ;  as,  *'I  shall  go  to  town ; " 
with  the  second  and  third  persons,  to  express  a  determina- 
tion ;  as,  "You  shall  go  to  town."  "He  shall  go  to 
town."  Will  is  used,  in  direct  statement,  with  the  first 
person,  tc  express  determination ;  as,  "I  will  go  to  town ; " 
with  the  second  and  third,  to  express  simple  future  action  ; 
as,  "You  will  go  to  town."  "He  will  go  to  town." 
Should  and  loould  are  used  in  a  similar  manner. 

This  distinction  is  commonly  disref?arded  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  States,  but  is  insisted  upon  by  all  who  aim  to  use  the  best 
English.  The  consequences  of  confounding  the  two  words  are 
amusingly  illustrated  by  the  story  of  the  Frenchman,  who,  having 
fallen  into  the  water,  cried  out  in  terror,  "  I  will  drown,  and  nobody 
shall  help  me." 

The  origin  of  these  words  is  as  follows:  87iall  (from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  scitlan,  to  be  obliged)  implies  an  obligation,  and  means,  radi- 
cally, ought.      Will  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  willan,  to  determine) 


STYLE.  49 

implies  a  determination.  "  I  shall "  is,  therefore,  equivalent  to  "  I 
ought,  and  so  must;"  "I  will,"  to  "I  purpose;"  "You  shall,"  to 
"  You  ought,  and  so  must ; "  "  You  will,"  to  "  You  purpose,"  etc. 

(5)  Distinguish  between  the  declarative  and  the  con- 
tingent use  of  the  verb.  Statements  which  are  intended 
to  express  belief,  even  though  conditional,  should  be  made 
in  the  declarative  form ;  as,  "  If  this  man  is  innocent, 
[and  I  mean  to  imply  that  he  isj  he  ought  to  be  liberated." 
Statements  which  are  intended  to  express  doubt,  ought  to 
be  made  in  the  contingent  form;  as,  "If  this  man  he  in- 
nocent, [and  I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  he  is  or  is  not] 
he  ought  to  be  liberated." 

The  words  "declarative"  and  "  contingent"  are  here  used  to  ex- 
press what  many  grammarians  would  convey  by  the  words  "indica- 
tive" and  "subjunctive."  The  distinction  noted  is,  unfortunately, 
less  regarded  than  formerly. 

(6)  Distinguish  between  the  nominative  and  the  ob- 
jective case.  The  pronouns  are  the  only  words  which 
retain  the  ancient  distinctive  case-ending  for  the  objec- 
tive. Special  care  is  necessary  to  use  the  objective  form 
(1)  as  the  object  of  a  verb,  and  (2)  after  prepositions ;  as, 
"The  man  whom  you  sent ;  let  you  and  me;  they  said  to 
Mm  and  me,"  Not^  "The  man  wJto  you  sent;  let  you 
and  /;  they  said  to  7ie  and  /." 

(7)  Distinguish  between  theuseof  who,  which,  and  that. 

Who  refers  only  to  persons;  which,  only  to  things;  that, 
to  either  persons  or  things.  Owing  to  the  common  charac- 
ter of  that,  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  who  or  rvhich  in  the  fol- 
lowing cases :  (1)  To  avoid  ambiguity;  as,  *^  The  windows 
3 


50  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  EHETOBIG. 

ivUch  I  saw,  had  shutters  that  opened  on  the  inside." 
(2)  When  both  persons  and  things  are  inckided  in  the 
antecedent;  as,  "The  ladies  and  music  that  enliycned 
the  scene."  (3)  When  the  relative  is  very  closely  con- 
nected with  its  antecedent  by  ellipsis ;  as,  "  The  first  time 
that  [in  which]  I  met  him."  (4)  When  a  clause  is  re- 
strictive; as,  *'The  plans  of  life  that  men  form  in  hope 
often  fail."  Here,  if  tohich  were  used,  the  sense  would  be 
different, the  clause  being  no  longer  restrictive;  as,  "The 
plans  of  life  which  men  form  in  hope  often  fail." 

(8)  Distinguish  between  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive degree  of  adjectives.  The  common  errors  are ;  (1) 
Using  the  double  comparative  and  superlative  ;  as,  "  These 
are  much  more  preferable."  "  The  most  universal  motive 
to  business  is  gain."  (2)  Using  the  superlative  when  only 
two  are  compared ;  as,  "  His  is  the  easiest  manner  of  the 
two."  (3)  Comparing  objects  which  belong  to  wholly 
dissimilar  classes;  as,  "There  is  no  easier  life  than  a 
preacher?^  (4)  Including  objects  in  a  class  to  which  they 
do  not  belong;  as,  "The  fairest  of  her  daughters.  Eve." 
(5)  Excluding  an  object  from  a  class  to  which  it  does 
belong ;  as,  "  Caesar  was  braver  than  any  ancient  warrior." 

n 

Attention  should  be  given  to  tbe  fact  that  some  adjectives  are 
superlative  in  sense,  and  do  not  admit  of  comparison ;  as,  ultimate, 
supreme,  extreme.  Others,  as  superior,  posterior,  prior,  are  properly 
comparative.  Still  we  have  "more  perfect"  and  even  "most  per- 
fect "  in  good  writers.  Such  anomalous  forms  are  to  be  explained 
as  indicating  the  highest  approximation  to  that  which  is  absolutely 
unattainable.  A  "most  perfect  form"  means  the  nearest  possible 
approach  to  perfection.    Such  expressions  shoiild  not  be  encouraged. 

The  tendency  of  the  best  writers  in  comparing  adjectives  is  to 
form  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  monosyllables  by  adding 


STYLE.  51 

-er  and  -est  to  the  positive;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest.  Polysyllables 
are  generally  compared  by  using  more  and  most ;  as,  eloquent,  more 
eloquent,  most  eloquent. 

(9)  Distinguish  between  adjectives  and  adverbs.    These 
^are  often  confounded  (1)  by  using  an  adjective  for  an  ad- 
verb ;  as,  "  He  behaved  himself  confor7}iaUe  to  that  blessed 
example;"  (^)  by  using  an  adverb  for  an  adjective;  as, 
"  She  looks  heautifuUy!^ 

Tlie  distinction  between  the  instances  requiring  an  adjective  and 
those  requiring  an  adverb,  is  not  clearly  drawn  by  grammarians. 
Eemember  that  when  the  intention  is  to  qualify  the  verb,  an  adverb 
should  be  used  ;  when  to  qualify  the  noun,  an  adjective.  Thus,  the 
word  feel  is  used  in  both  an  active  and  a  neuter  sense  ;  as,  **  I  feel 
[i.e.  exercise  my  power  of  feeling]  'powerfully ;"  or,  "Ifeel  [i.e. 
am  conscious  of  being]  powerful."  When  the  neuter  verb  indicates 
a  degree,  the  adverb  is  properly  used  ;  as,  "  I  suffer  greatly." 

2.  Rules  for  Compound  and  Complex  Sentences. 

The  following  rules  are  intended  to  guard  against  the 
most  common  errors  in  the  construction  of  compound  and 
complex  sentences. 

(1)  The  parts  of  compound  sentences  should  corres- 
pond. This  rule  is  violated  (1)  by  blending  archaic  and 
modern  forms ;  (2)  by  using  different  parts  of  speech  in 
similar  situations ;  (3)  by  using  incongruous  pronominal 
forms ;  and  (4)  by  using  auxiliaries  which  do  not  belong 
to  all  the  tense-forms  of  a  verb  to  which  they  have  a  com- 
mon reference. 

These  errors  may  be  illustrated  as  follows  : 

(1)  Archaic  forms  of  the  verb  ending  in  -eth  and  -est  are  fre- 
quently, but  erroneously,  used  in  the  same  sentence  with  modern 
forms  ;  as,  "  The  Moon  sendeth  [sends]  to  the  Earth  the  light  which 
the  Sun  gives  to  her." 


52  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

(S)  The  corresponding  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  expressed 
by  the  same  parts  of  speech.  The  following  illustration  is  given 
by  Abbott  :  '*  He  had  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  delay  was  not  an 
accident  [accidental]  but  premeditated,  and  for  supposing  [to  sup- 
pose, or  else,  for  believing,  above]  that  the  fort,  though  strong  both 
by  art  and  naturally  [nature],  would  be  forced  by  the  treachery  of 
the  governor  and  the  indolent  [indolence  of  the]  general  to  capitulate 
within  a  week." 

(3)  The  same  or  corresponding  pronouns  should  be  used 
throughout  a  sentence.  The  following  is  wrong :  **  Thou  art  not 
the  trustworthy  person  I  hoped  you  were."  Use  either  the  old  or 
the  modern  form  throughout. 

(4)  In  the  following  sentence  the  auxiliaries  '  had'  and  'would' 
cannot  both  be  used  with  the  common  verb  *  send  ' :  "He  said  that 
he  had  or  would  send  the  money,  but  I  forget  which."  The  form 
sent  must  be  supplied  with  had  ;  as,  "  He  said  he  had  sent  or  would 
send,"  etc. 


(2)  Attend  to  the  sequence  of  tenses.  This  requires 
(1)  that  references  to  time  should  be  in  harmony  with 
each  other  and  with  the  sense,  and  (2)  that  general  or 
timeless  statements  should  always  be  expressed  in  the 
present  tense. 

(1)  Reference  must  be  made  to  works  on  Grammar  for  specific 
rules  on  this  point.  The  following  are  examples  of  a  wrong 
use  of  tenses :  "  If  these  persons  had  ^omit  the  auxiliary]  intended 
to  deceive,  they  would  have  taken  care  to  have  avoided  [to  avoid] 
what  would  expose  them  to  the  objection  of  their  opponents." 
"Then  they  said  unto  him,  what  shall  we  do  that  we  migJit  [may] 
work  the  works  of  God."     "  I  have  [omit]  studied  Latin  last  year." 

(2)  The  following  are  wrong  :  "  Let  us  suppose  a  man  convinced, 
notwithstanding  the  disorders  of  the  world,  that  it  was  [is]  under 
the  direction  of  an  infinitely  perfect  being."  "  He  maintained  that 
only  the  virtuous  were  [are]  happy." 


(3)  Sentences  should  be  properly  connected.    This  is 
done  (1)  by  using  suitable  adverbs  and  conjunctions ;  (2) 


STYLE.  63 

by  repeating  a  verb,  a  conjunction,  or  the  subject  of  a 
sentence. 

(1)  The  effect  of  leaving  out  the  connecting  words  is  exhibited 
in  the  following  paragraph,  taken  from  Abbott : 

"  Pitt  was  in  the  army  for  a  few  months  in  time  of  peace.  His  biographer 
[accordingly]  insists  on  our  confessing,  that,  if  the  young  comet  had  remained 
in  the  service,  he  would  have  been  one  of  the  ablest  commanders  that  ever  lived. 
[But]  this  is  not  all.  Pitt  [it  seems]  was  not  merely  a  great  poet  in  esse  and  a 
great  general  in  posse,  but  a  finished  example  of  moral  excellence.  .  .  .  [T?ie 
truth  is  that]  there  scarcely  ever  lived  a  person  who  had  so  little  claim  to  this  sort 
of  praise  as  Pitt.  He  was  [undoubtedly]  a  great  man.  [But]  his  was  not  a  com- 
plete and  well  proportioned  greatness.  The  public  life  of  Hampden  or  of  Somers 
resembles  a  regular  drama  which  can  be  criticised  as  a  whole,  and  every  scene  of 
which  is  to  be  viewed  in  connection  with  the  main  action.  The  public  life  of 
Pitt,  [on  the  other  hand,]  is,"  etc. 


(3)  It  is  often  of  great  advantage  to  the  reader  or  hearer  if  a 
verb,  a  conjunction,  or  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  repeated, 

as  in  the  following  examples : 

"  Cardinal  Kichelieu  hated  Buckingham  as  sincerely  as  did  the  '  Spaniard 
Olivares,' " 

If  "did"  were  omitted,  the  sentence  would  be  ambiguous. 


*'  We  might  say  that  the  Ctesars  did  not  persecute  the  Christians  ;  that  they 
only  punished  men  who  were  charged,  rightly  or  wrongly,  with  burning  Rome, 
and  committing  the  foulest  abominations  in  secret  assemblies ;  and  that  the 
refusal  to  throw  frankincense  on  the  altar  of  Jupiter  was  not  the  crime,  but  only 
evidence  of  the  crime." 

"  At  school  and  at  college,  the  great  vision  of  Rome  broods  over  the  mind  with 
a  power  which  is  never  suspended  or  disputed :  her  great  men,  her  beautiful 
legends,  her  history,  the  height  to  which  she  rose,  and  the  depth  to  which  she 
ioil^—these  make  up  one-half  of  a  student's  ideal  world." 


II.   CLEARNESS. 

1.  The  Importance  of  Clearness. 

The  purpose  of  language  is  to  convey  thought  from  one 
mind  to  another.     Language  is  the  medium  of  communi- 


54:  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIO. 

cntion.  While  the  thought  and  the  expression  are  often 
apparently  one  whole  so  compounded  that  the  one  could 
not  exist  without  the  other,  it  is  still  true  that  language 
is  best  adapted  to  its  purpose  when  it  is  a  transparent 
medium.  It  should  reveal  the  whole  thought  as  the 
writer  or  speaker  would  have  it  understood  by  the  person 
addressed.  As  Quintilian  says,  the  expression  should  be 
so  clear  that  the  hearer  not  only  may  but  must  under- 
stand. 

The  importance  of  clearness  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  Dr.  Camp- 
bell. He  says :  "  If  the  medium  through  which  we  look  at  any 
object  is  perfectly  transparent,  our  whole  attention  is  fixed  on  the 
object ;  we  are  scarcely  sensible  that  there  is  a  medium  which  inter- 
venes, and  we  can  hardly  be  said  to  perceive  it.  But  if  there  is  any 
flaw  in  the  medium,  if  we  see  through  it  but  dimly,  if  the  object  is 
imperfectly  represented,  or  if  we  know  it  to  be  misrepresented,  our 
attention  is  immediately  taken  off  the  object  to  the  medium.  We 
a*e  then  anxious  to  discover  the  cause,  either  of  the  dim  and  con- 
fused representation,  or  of  the  misrepresentation,  of  things  which 
it  exhibits,  that  so  the  defect  in  vision  may  be  supplied  by  judg- 
ment. The  case  of  language  is  precisely  similar.  A  discourse, 
then,  excels  in  perspicuity  when  the  subject  engrosses  the  attention 
of  the  hearer,  and  the  language  is  so  little  minded  by  him,  that  he 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  conscious  it  is  through  this  medium  he 
sees  into  the  speaker's  thoughts." 


2.  Rules  for  Clearness. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  so  arranging 
words  in  sentences  as  to  secure  clearness. 

(1)  Observe  the  natural  order  in  the  English  sentence. 
The  natural  order  is,  in  the  simple  sentence,  (1)  the  Sub- 
ject and  its  modifiers,  (2)  the  Copula,  (3)  the  Predicate 
and  its  modifiers.  This  order  is  often  violated  for  poetical 
effect  and  for  emphasis. 


STYLE.  55 

Arrangement  is  more  important  in  English  than  in  the  synthetic 
or  inflected  languages,  such  as  the  Latin  and  the  Greek.  The 
Buhject  and  the  object  of  an  English  sentence  can  generalJy  be  dis- 
tinguished only  by  the  position  which  they  occupy.  Thus,  "  William 
loves  Charles,"  means  that  William  is  the  one  who  loves  and  Charles 
the  one  who  is  loved.  If  the  order  be  reversed  ;  as,  "  Charles  loves 
William,"  the  meaning  is  changed.  In  Latin  this  is  not  so.  "  Gu- 
lietmus  amat  Garolum,"  means,  "  William  loves  Charles,"  no  matter 
what  the  order  of  the  words.  The  sentence,  "  And  thus  the  son  the 
fervent  sire  addressed,"  is  not  clear.  The  order  is  sometimes 
changed  for  emphasis,  but  such  inversions  are  emphatic  chiefly  be- 
cause they  are  unusual ;  as,  "  A  noble  son  was  Charles" 


(2)  Place  the  adverb  as  neap  as  possible  to  the  word 
it  qualifies,  and  so  that  it  cannot  be  supposed  to  qualify 
any  other  word.  This  rule  is  violated  in  the  following 
sentences:  "Thales  was  not  only  famous  y\  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  nature,  but  for  his  moral  wisdom."  "I  told  him 
to  go  slowly,  but  he  a  left  the  room  quicTclyf  dropping  the 
purse  on  the  floor.'' 

In  the  last  example  the  ambiguity  of  reference  may  be  removed 
for  the  reader  by  punctuation,  and  for  the  hearer  by  the  voice.  A 
careful  writer,  however,  would  not  be  willing  to  leave  his  meaning 
to  the  mercy  of  a  careless  compositor  or  reader.  Punctuation  and 
rhetorical  pauses  ought  never  to  be  relied  upon  to  bring  out  the 
sense. 

The  word  '  only  '  is  peculiarly  liable  to  abuse.  Abbott  has  shown 
how  many  different  meanings  may  be  taken  from  four  words  vari- 
ously arranged.    He  says : 

"  In  strictness  perhaps  the  three  following  sentences  : 

(1)  He  only  beat  three, 

(2)  He  beat  only  three, 

(3)  He  beat  three  only^ 
ought  to  be  explained  thus : 

(1)  He  did  no  more  than  beat,  did  not  kill,  three. 

(2)  He  beat  no  more  than  three. 

(3)  He  beat  three  and  that  was  all  he  did.  Here  only  modifies  the  whole  sen- 
tence and  depreciates  the  action." 


56  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BEETORIC. 

The  Position  of  the  adverb,  when  emphatic,  is  after  the  verb ; 
as,  "He  walked  slowly  down  the  hill."  When  unemphatic,  the  ad- 
verb is  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as,  "He  slowly  walked  down  the 
hill."  Never  put  an  adverb  between  "to"  and  its  verb;  as,  "He 
preferred  to  not  sing." 

(3)  Place  adverbial  clauses  and  adjuncts  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  words  they  qualify.  This  rule  is  violated 
in  this  sentence :  "  The  following  lines  were  written  by 
one,  who,  for  more  than  ten  years,  had  been  confined  in 
the  penitentiary^  for  Ms  oivn  diversion"  This  means  that 
he  was  confined  for  his  own  diversion,  but  is  intended  to 
mean  that  the  lines  were  written  for  his  own  diversion. 

An  adverbial  clause  is  a  clause  used  as  an  adverb,  to  modify  a 
verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverbial  expression.  An  adjunct  is  a  noun 
governed  by  a  preposition. 

(4)  Avoid  the  squinting  construction.  This  is  a  con- 
struction in  which  an  expression  looks  both  ways,  that  is, 
may  be  taken  with  what  precedes  or  with  what  follows ; 
as,  "  The  minister  who  y\  gi'ows  less  by  his  elevation,  UTce 
a  little  statue  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his 
jealousy  strong  about  him."  The  words  in  italics  may  be 
taken  with  the  preceding  or  the  following  words.  They 
are  intended  to  be  taken  with  the  preceding. 

In  the  last  example  there  is  little  probability  of  any  one's  taking 
the  words  in  italics  with  the  following,  after  re-reading  the  sentence. 
It  is  not  safe,  however,  to  trust  one's  meaning  to  the  perseverance 
of  a  reader.  The  fault  in  the  example  is  obscurity  rather  than 
ambiguity,  the  most  common  result  of  a  squinting  construction. 

(5)  Avoid  the  ambiguous  use  of  pronouns.  The  pro- 
noun is  by  nature  a  kind  of  universal  noun,  and  may 


STYLE.  67 

refer  to  anything  of  the  same  gender,  number  and  person. 
Ambiguity  may  be  avoided  in  four  ways;  viz.  :  (1)  by 
altering  the  gender,  or  (2)  the  number,  or  (3)  the  person, 
when  the  antecedent  would  otherwise  be  uncertain,  aud 
(4)  by  repeating  the  antecedent. 


(1)  "  I  lieard  this  from  tlie  driver,  who  heard  it  from  the  post- 
man, who  was  at  the  gate,"  is  objectionable  because  who  refers  to 
two  ditferent  persons.  This  may  be  avoided  by  using  that,  which 
is  of  common  gender,  instead  of  who^  as  the  second  relative ;  as,  "  I 
heard  this  from  the  driver,  who  heard  it  from  the  postman  that  was 
at  the  gate."  The  meaning  is  here  slightly  affected,  who  being  rela- 
tive and  that  both  relative  and  restrictive. 

(2)  The  following  may  be  improved  by  changing  the  number  of 
one  of  the  words :  "  They  were  persons  of  high  hopes,  before  they 
[that  is,  hopes]  were  clouded  over  by  misfortune."  Say  rather, 
"  They  were  full  of  hope  until  it  was  clouded  over  by  misfortune." 

(3)  Ambiguity  is  sometimes  avoided  by  reporting  a  speech  in  the 
second  person.  Instead  of  "  He  told  his  father  that  he  [his  father] 
was  perfectly  safe,"  write,  "He  said  to  his  father,  ^Tou  are  per- 
fectly safe.' " 

(4)  Sometimes  the  only  escape  from  ambiguity  is  to  express  the 
antecedent  in  full;  as,  "He  said  that  he  had  conversed  with  Mr. 
Brown  and  his  proposition  was  impracticable."  Here  Mr.  Brown's 
should  be  substituted  for  his. 

The  amusing  effect  of  disregarding  the  reference  of  pronouns 
is  well  illustrated  by  Burton,  in  the  following  story  of  Billy  Wil- 
liams, a  comic  actor,  who  thus  narrates  his  experience  in  riding  a 
horse  owned  by  Hamblin,  the  manager. 

"  So  down  I  goes  to  the  stable  with  Tom  Flynn,  and  told  the  man  to  put  the 
saddle  on  him." 

"  On  Tom  Flynn  ?  " 

"  No,  on  the  horse.  So,  after  talking  with  Tom  Flynn  awhile,  I  mounted 
him." 

"What !  mounted  Tom  Flynn ?  " 

"No!  the  horse  ;  and  then  I  shook  hands  with  him  and  rode  off." 

" Shook  hands  with  the  horse,  Billy? " 

"  No,  with  Tom  Flynn  ;  and  then  I  rode  off  up  the  Bowery,  and  who  should  I 
meet  in  front  of  the  Bowery  Theatre  but  Tom  Hamblin :  so  I  got  off  and  told 
the  boy  to  hold  him  by  the  head." 

"  What?  hold  Hamblin  by  the  head  ?" 


58  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

"  No,  the  horse  ;  and  then  we  went  and  had  a  drink  together." 

"  What  1  you  and  the  horse  ? " 

"  No,  me  and  Hainblin  ;  and  after  that  I  mounted  him  again,  and  went  out  of 
town." 

"  What  1  mounted  Hamblin  again  ?  " 

"No,  the  horse  ;  and  when  I  got  to  Burnham,  who  should  be  there  but  Tom 
Flynn,— he'd  taken  another  horse  and  rode  out  ahead  of  me  ;  so  I  told  the  hostler 
to  tie  him  up." 

"Tie  Tom  Flynn  up?" 

"  No,  the  horse  1  and  we  had  a  drink  there." 

"  What  1  you  and  the  horse  ? " 

"  No,  me  and  Tom  Flynn  !  " 

Finding  his  auditors  by  this  time  in  a  Jwrse  laugh,  Billy  wound  up  with— 

"Now,  look  here, — every  time  I  say  horse,  you  say  Hamblin,  and  every  time 
I  say  Hamblin,  you  say  horse.  I'll  be  hanged  if  I  tell  you  any  more  about  it."— 
Quoted  by  Habt. 


III.  UNITY. 

1.  Meaning  of  Unity. 

By  Unity  is  meant  such  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  each  sentence  as  to  produce  one  impression.  A  building 
may  be  so  designed  as  to  give  evidence  that  it  is  the  pro- 
duct of  one  architect  who  has  carefully  planned  and  ad- 
justed all  its  parts.  Such  a  structure  possesses  unity. 
Another  edifice  may  show  from  its  variety  of  materials  and 
lack  of  proportion  that  its  parts  were  built  at  different 
times  and  by  different  percsons.  Such  a  building  does  not 
possess  unity  of  design. 

A  sentence,  in  like  manner,  may  consist  of  parts  so 
combined  as  to  produce  the  impression  of  oneness,  or  it 
may  be  so  loosely  thrown  together  as  to  produce  only  a 
confused  aud  indefinite  idea  in  the  mind.  A  sentence, 
like  a  palace,  may  be  vast  without  sacrificing  unity ;  or, 
like  a  cottage,  it  may  have  but  few  and  insignificant  parts 
without  possessing  it.  The  test  of  unity  is  the  connection 
between  the  parts.  If  that  is  close,  the  sentence  has  unity ; 
if  it  is  remote,  the  sentence  wants  unity. 


STYLE.  59 

On  the  Importance  of  unity  Blair  remarks:  '*  This  is  a  capital 
property.  In  every  composition,  of  whatever  kind,  some  degree  of 
unity  is  required,  in  order  to  render  it  beautiful.  There  must  bo 
always  some  connecting  principle  among  the  parts.  Some  one 
object  must  reign  and  be  predominant.  This,  as  I  shall  hereafter 
show,  holds  in  history,  in  epic  and  dramatic  poetry,  and  in  all  ora- 
tions. But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sentence,  is  required  the  strictest 
unity.  For  the  very  nature  of  a  sentence  implies  one  proposition  to 
be  expressed.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed  ;  but  these  parts  must 
be  so  closely  bound  together  as  to  make  the  impression  on  the  mind, 
of  one  object,  not  of  many." 


2.  Rules  for  Unity. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  unity : 
(1)  Avoid  changing  the  subject  so  as  to  confuse  the 
thought.  It  is  not  meant,  as  some  writers  on  Ehetoric 
seem  to  teach,  that  a  sentence  should  have  only  one  sub- 
ject. Every  complex  sentence  must,  from  its  nature,  have 
more  than  one  subject.  This  rule  is  intended  to  guard 
against  the  undue  addition  of  accessory  propositions.  The 
following  violates  the  rule :  "  When  wc  were  about  to  go, 
tliey  put  into  my  hands  a  bundle  of  books,  and  when  / 
undid  them,  tliey  proved  to  be  exactly  what  /  wanted." 
Say  rather  "  On  our  departure,  a  bundle  of  books  was  put 
into  my  hands.  When  opened,  they  proved  to  be  exactly 
what  I  wanted.'*' 


In  the  last  example,  as  remodeled,  there  are  two  sentences  to 
express  what  the  uncorrected  sentence  expresses.  This  kind  of 
division  is  generally  the  most  certain  remedy  for  sentences  which 
violate  unity.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  that  this  rule  should 
be  pressed  so  far  as  to  require  a  reconstruction  of  the  last  sentence 
in  the  corrected  example.  That  sentence  contains  two  subjects,  but 
the  second  is  so  subordinated  in  the  expression  "exactly  what  3 
wanted  "  as  not  to  violate  unity. 


60  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG, 

(2)  Avoid  crowding  together  things  unconnected.  This 
rule  is  violated  in  the  folio wiog  sentence:  "Socrates  and 
Plato  were  wise  and  they  both  lived  to  be  old  men ;  the 
former  being  killed  by  the  Athenians  and  the  latter  dying 
a  natural  death."    Here  is  material  for  two  sentences. 

(3)  Avoid  inserting  relative  clauses  into  clauses  which 
are  themselves  relative.  This  rule,  and  also  the  previous, 
is  violated  in  the  following  sentence:  **The  march  was 
through  an  uncultivated  country,  tvliose,  savage  inhabitants 
fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean 
slieep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of 
their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish."  Here  the  second 
relative  clause  is  inserted  into  the  first.  The  remedy  is  to 
divide  the  sentence  into  two.  Thus:  "The  march  of  the 
Greeks  was  through  an  uncultivated  country.  Its  savage 
inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having,"  etc. 

When  the  relative  clauses  are  co-ordinate,  having  reference  to 
a  common  antecedent,  unity  is  not  necessarily  violated;  as,  "He 

was  a  soldier  who  disregarded  every  hardship,  wlio  courted  danger, 
and  wlio  faced  it  boldly  and  even  joyfully,  when  found." 

(4)  Avoid  the  addition  of  supplementary  clauses  to  a 
complete  sentence.  The  rule  is  violated  in  loose  sen- 
tences, and  the  remedy  is  either  to  divide  them  into 
separate  sentences  or  to  make  them  periodic.  In  the 
sentence,  "  With  these  writings  [of  Cicero]  young  divines 
are  more  conversant  than  with  those  of  Demosthenes,  who, 
by  many  degrees,  excelled  the  other  ;  at  least,  as  an  orator," 
— the  mind  naturally  rests  at  the  word  other,  as  the  con- 
clusion of  the  sentence,  and,  contrary  to  expectation,  is 
obliged  to  carry  back  the  added  clause  to  reconstruct  the 


STYLE.  61 

previous  thought.  The  sentence  would  be  improved  by 
the  following  change:  "With  these  writings  young  divines 
are  more  conversant  than  with  those  of  Demosthenes,  who, 
by  many  degrees,  as  an  orator  at  least,  excelled  the  other." 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  whicli  tlie  end  seems  to  be  reached 
before  tlie  sentence  is  completed.  A  periodic  sentence  is  one  in 
wliicTi  the  thought  is  suspended  until  the  close.  Suspense  is  caused 
(1)  by  placing  the  "  if-clause  "  first,  and  not  last,  in  a  conditional 
sentence;  as,  "If  thou  didst  ever  thy  dear  father  love,  revenge  his 
foul  and  most  unnatural  murder ;"  (2)  by  placing  participles  before 
the  words  which  they  qualify  ;  as,  "Deserted  by  his  friends,  he  was 
forced  to  have  recourse  to  those  who  had  been  his  enemies;"  (3)  by 
using  suspensive  conjunctions;  as,  "Either  you  must  take  this 
extremely  perilous  course,  in  which  success  is  uncertain,  and  failure 
disgraceful,  as  well  as  ruinous,  or  else  the  liberty  of  your  country  is 
endangered."  If  either  be  omitted,  the  meaning  is  liable  to  be  mis- 
understood, until  the  reader  has  gone  half  through  the  sentence. 
Periodic  sentences  ought  not  to  be  very  long.  If  they  are,  the 
beginning  is  lost  before  the  end  is  reached. 


(5)  Avoid  forcing  abstract  and  concrete  ideas  into  the 
same  grammatical  government ;  as,  "  On  every  side  they 
rose  in  multitudes,  armed  with  rustic  weapons  and  with 
irresistible /wr?/." 

When  the  design  is  to  raise  a  laugh  by  the  ridiculous  combina- 
tion of  dissimilar  things,  abstract  and  concrete  ideas  may  be  thus 
blended ;  as,  "  He  took  his  7iat  and  leave."  "  He  was  delivered  from 
dy-ead  and  his  wife's  voice."  "  A  huckwJi  eat -cake  was  in  her  mouth, 
a  tear  was  in  her  eye."  Although  the  last  example  combines  two 
concrete  ideas,  they  are  so  dissimilar  as  to  violate  unity.  In  this 
consists  its  comical  quality. 

(6)  Avoid  unnecessary  parentheses.  A  parenthesis  is  an 
inserted  expression  which  has  no  grammatical  connection 
with  the  remainder  of  the  s&ntence.     Hence  it  is  liable  to 


62  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHEIOBIG. 

withdraw  the  attention  from  the  main  thought ;  as, 
*^When  this  Parliament  sat  down  (for  it  deserves  our 
particular  observation  that  both  Houses  were  full  of  zeal 
for  the  present  Government,  and  of  resentment  against 
the  late  usurpations),  there  was  but  one  party  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  no  other  party  could  raise  its  head  in  the 
nation." 

Parentheses  were  formerly  much  more  frequently  employed  than 
they  are  at  present.  Their  excessive  use  indicates  a  deficiency  of 
art  in  writing.  It  is  generally  possible,  by  recasting  and  arranging 
our  thoughts,  to  avoid  parentheses  altogether.  They  are,  however, 
occasionally  unavoidable.  Long  parentheses  mar  the  beauty  and 
destroy  the  unity  of  a  sentence. 

IV.   ENERGY. 

1.  Meaning  of  Energy, 

A  sentence  may  be  constructed  in  accordapce  with  the 
rules  for  concord,  clearness  and  unity,  and  still  produce 
but  little  effect.  Something  is  wanting  to  fix  the  atten- 
tion and  sustain  the  interest.  This  important  quality  is 
variously  called  energy,  vivacity,  strength  or  animation. 
Energy  (the  Greek  ev^pyeia,  energeia,  from  ev,  en,  in,  and 
epyov,  ergon,  work)  is  the  most  exact  expression  for  the 
quality,  because  the  word  suggests  a  force  in  the  verbal 
form  apart  from  the  character  of  the  thought.  Style  is 
greatly  affected  by  the  strength  or  feebleness  of  the 
thought,  but  even  common-place  thoughts  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  energetic  language.  The  quality  of  the  thought 
belongs  to  invention.  The  term  *' energy  of  expression" 
has  reference  solely  to  the  fitness  of  the  words  to  convey 
the  ideas  with  force. 


STYLE.  63 


2.  Bulcs  for  Ener^. 

Many  of  tbe  previous  rules  indirectly  contribute  to 
energy,  since  clearness  and  unity  are  essential  to  this 
quality  of  style.  The  following  rules  are  more  directly 
adapted  to  secure  energy. 

(1)  Avoid  all  unnecessary  words.  Whatever  adds 
nothing  to  the  meaning  simply  clogs  the  expression. 
Unnecessary  words  appear  in  three  ways:  (1)  when  they 
repeat  the  thought,  they  are  called  Tautological ;  (2)  when 
they  are  added  without  being  necessary  to  the  sense,  they 
are  called  Redundant ;  (3)  when  they  are  combined  in  a 
diffuse  way  which  may  be  simplified,  they  form  a  Circum- 
locution. 


(1)  The  eflfort  to  be  clear  often  leads  one  into  Tautology,  as  in 
the  following  example  :  "  This  is  so  clear  a  proposition,  that  I  rest 
the  whole  argument  entirely  upon  it."  In  such  cases  one  or  the 
other  of  the  words  used  tautologically  should  be  stricken  out. 

(2)  Redundancy  is  most  likely  to  show  itself  in  the  use  of  adjec- 
tives. These  words  are  usually  descriptive,  and  hence  serve  to 
enrich  the  style,  but  when  used  in  excess  they  overburden  the  sen- 
tence and  show  a  pedantic  taste  or  a  strain  after  effect.  Superlatives 
are  especially  liable  to  disfigure  the  sentences  of  unpractised  writers. 
It  is  a  good  rule  to  strike  out  such  words  as  "very,"  "  inexpressi- 
ble," "unprecedented,"  "stupendous,"  etc.,  whenever  they  are  not 
strictly  required.  The  following  are  instances  of  Redundancy  : 
"  The  universal  opinion  of  all  men."  "  They  returned  hack  again  to 
the  same  place /rom  whence  they  came  forth."  "  His  very  excellent 
discourse  was  most  intolerable  and  extremely  inconsiderate  in  the 
eyes  of  enemies."  "  The  boundless  plains  in  the  heart  of  the  em- 
pire furnished  inexhaustible  supplies  of  corn,  that  would  have  almost 
sufficed  for  twice  the  population."  Note  the  inconsistency  of  inex- 
haustible with  what  follows. 

(3)  Circumlocution  requires  the  re-casting  of  the  whole  expres- 
sion.   For  example  : 


64  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

"  Pope  professed  to  have  learned  his  poetry  from  Diyden,  whom,  whenever  an 
opportunity  was  presented,  he  praised  through  the  whole  period  of  his  existence 
with  unvaried  liberality  ;  and  perhaps  his  character  may  receive  some  illustra- 
tion, if  a  comparison  be  instituted  between  him  and  the  man  whose  pupil  he 
was." 

This  sentence  is  thus  condensed  by  Bain  : 

"Pope  professed  himself  the  pupil  of  Drydcn,  whom  he  lost  no  opportunity 
of  praising  ;  and  his  character  may  be  illustrated  by  a  comparison  with  his  mas- 
ter." >' 

(2)  Use  connective  words  with  cape.  This  rule  is 
necessarily  indefinite,  as  no  specific  rules  can  be  framed  to 
guard  against  every  possible  fault.  An  attentive  study  of 
the  appended  illustrations  will  show  how  important  is  the 
judicious  management  of  connectives. 

When  we  are  making  a  deliberate  enumeration  of  particulars 
which  are  designed  to  occupy  the  mind  and  impress  it  forcibly,  the 
conjunction  may  be  repeated  ;  as,  "I  am  persuaded  that  neither 
death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things 
present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other 
creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God."  This 
repetition  is  called  Polysyndeton. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  we  wish  to  convey  the  idea  of  rapid 
movement  and  to  stimulate  the  mind  by  avi\ad  description  or  narra- 
tion, the  conjunction  may  be  omitted  ;  as, — 

"  One  effort,  one,  to  break  the  circling  host ; 
They/(9rm,  unite,  charge,  waver, — all  is  lost." 
This  omission  is  called  Asyndeton. 

When  a  word  is  governed  by  two  different  prepositions,  the  effect 
is  awkward  and  feeble  :  as,  "  Socrates  was  invited  to,  and  Euripides 
entertained  at,  his  court."    This  is  called  the  Splitting  of  Particles. 

And  is  sometimes  used  redundantly  before  the  relative  which; 
as,  "  I  gave  him  a  beautiful  picture,  and  ichich  I  admired  in  the 
bookstore."  And  may  properly  precede  which  when  it  connects  two 
relative  clauses;  as,  "It  was  a  day  which  all  enjoyed,  and  which 
all  will  remember  with  pleasure." 

(3)  Give  important  words  in  the  sentence  an  emphatic 
position.     This  rule  does  not  require  any  violation  of  rule 


8TYLE.  65 

first  for  Clearness.  It  is  designed  to  guard  against  the 
error  of  losing  the  principal  thought  in  the  sentence  by 
giving  too  great  prominence  to  details. 

Compare  this  sentence  witli  the  next :  "  It  is  characteristic  of  a 
wise  and  virtuous  man,  that,  at  all  times,  his  own  private  interest 
should  be  sacrificed  to  the  public  interest  of  his  own  particular 
society."  "  The  wise  and  virtuous  man  is  at  all  times  willing  that 
his  own  private  interest  should  be  sacrificed  to  the  public  interest  of 
his  own  particular  society."  In  both  these  sentences  something  is 
afl&rmed  of  a  "wise  and  virtuous  man."  In  the  former  this  natural 
subject  of  the  sentence  is  made  a  mere  adjunct  of  the  word  "char- 
acteristic." In  the  latter  it  is  placed  prominently  before  the  mind 
as  the  subject  of  thought,  and  the  statement  about  it  is  made  with 
directness. 


(4)  Do  not  close  a  sentence  with  an  insignificant  word. 

Adverbs  and  prepositions  ought  not  to  be  placed  at  the 
close  of  a  period,  for  they  are  merely  qualifiers  and  con- 
nectives, and  should  not  take  the  place  of  more  significant 
words ;  as,  "  It  is  absurd  to  judge  either  Spenser  or 
Ariosto  by  precepts  which  they  did  not  attend  ^o."  This 
would  be  improved  thus:  "It  is  absurd  to  judge  either 
Spenser  or  Ariosto  by  precepts  to  iddch  they  did  not 
attend." 

It  is  not  a  violation  of  this  rule,  however,  to  use  adverbs  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence,  when  by  their  emphatic  position  they  express  an 
antithesis  of  thought ;  as,  *'  In  their  distress  my  friends  shall  hear 
of  me  always  ;  in  their  prosperity  never." 

In  arranging  the  clauses  of  a  sentence  the  longest  ought  to  come 
last. 

(5)  Use  figurative  language.  Wherein  figures  of  speech 
add  energy  to  language,  will  be  explained  in  another  place. 
It  is  important  to  note  the  fact  that  appropriate  figures 


66  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 

are  conducive  to  strength.  Of  these  Metaphor,  Antithesis 
and  Climax  are  particularly  effective  ;  as,  "  The  ship  leaps 
on."  "  The  ivickedflee  when  no  man  pursueth  ;  but  the 
righteous  are  lold  as  a  lion."  "  It  is  an  outrage  to  bind 
a  Roman  citizen ;  to  scourge  him  is  an  atrocious  crime ;  to 
PUT  HIM  TO  DEATH  is  almost  parricide ;  but  to  CRUCIFY 
him— what  shall  I  call  it  ?  " 


Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  an  excess  of  antitheses.    On 

this  point  Blair  gives  the  following  caution  :  "  The  frequent  use  of 
antithesis,  especially  where  the  opposition  of  the  words  is  nice  and 

quaint,  is  apt  to  render  style  disagreeable A  maxim, 

or  moral  saying,  properly  enough  receives  this  form ;  both  be- 
cause it  is  supposed  to  be  the  fruit  of  meditation,  and  because  it  is 
designed  to  be  engraven  on  the  memory,  which  recalls  it  more 
easily  by  the  help  of  such  contrasted  expressions.  But  where  a 
string  of  such  sentences  succeed  each  other  ;  where  this  becomes 
an  author's  favorite  and  prevailing  manner  of  expressing  himself, 

his  style  is  faulty Such  a  style  appears  too  studied  and 

labored;  it  gives  us  the  impression  of  an  author  attending  more 
to  his  manner  of  saying  things,  than  to  the  things  themselves  which 
he  says." 


V.  HARMONY. 

1 ,  The  Value  of  Harmony. 

A  sentence  may  be  grammatical,  and  observe  the  rules 
for  clearness,  unity  and  energy,  without  pleasing  the  ear 
by  its  smoothness  of  sound  or  displaying  any  adaptation  of 
sound  to  the  sense.  Most  sentences  are  constructed  with- 
out any  thought  of  how  they  will  sound.  Only  in  poetry 
and  elaborate  oratory  does  a  writer  study  to  embody  in  his 
language  a  soul  of  secret  harmony.  Frequently  un- 
pleasant words  and  combinations  of  words  cannot  be 


STYLE.  67 

avoided  without  obscuring  or  modifying  the  meaning. 
No  doubt  some  consideration  should  be  given  to  this 
element  of  style,  but  it  should  be  the  last  and  the  least  to 
engage  our  attention.  In  no  case  let  sense  be  sacrificed 
to  sound. 

With  regard  to  the  capability  of  OUr  language  in  harmony  of 
style,  the  following  remarks  by  Graham  are  judicious : 

"  English  has  been  often  accused  of  harshness,  and  it  certainly 
cannot  be  ranked  among  the  most  harmonious  languages  of  Europe. 
But,  if  not  the  most  beautiful  in  this  respect,  neither  can  it  be  said, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  it  is  the  most  disagreeable  ;  for,  though 
inferior  in  harmony  to  Italian  and  Spanish,  it  ranks  higher  than 
Dutch,  or  any  of  the  Scandinavian  or  Sclavonic  languages.  Since, 
however,  even  in  the  most  melodious  languages,  some  writers  are 
known  to  be  far  more  studious  of  elegance  and  beauty  than  others, 
it  follows  that  this  difference  will  also  appear  in  authors  who  write  in 
the  most  rugged  dialect.  Whatever,  then,  may  be  said  of  the  want  of 
softness  in  the  English  language,  it  is  plain,  as  some  of  our  writers 
surpass  others  in  harmony,  that  this  is  a  quality  to  be  cultivated  ; 
and  there  is  no  good  reason  why  any  one  gifted  with  a  delicate  ear 
may  not,  under  the  guidance  of  a  judicious  teacher,  attain  to  the 
power  of  writing  in  an  easy  and  flowing  style." 


2.  Rules  for  Harmony. 

Without  entering  into  the  philosophy  of  harmony,  which 
is  explained  in  the  *'  Science  of  Ehetoric,"  we  shall  limit 
the  discussion  of  this  subject  to  the  statement  of  a  few 
practical  rules. 

(1)  Select  the  most  melodious  words.  These  are  (1) 
words  ending  in  soft  consonants  or  open  vowels;  as, 
heauty,  alive,  dread;  (2)  words  containing  liquids ;  as, 
roaming,  lonely,  noontide  ;  (3)  polysyllables  with  the  accent 
near  the  end  ;  as,  temporality,  harmonious,  sonorous ;  (4) 
words  in  which  vowels  and  consonants  are  blended. 


68  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

The  following  table  of  the  English  alphabet  will  be  of  aid  in 
pointing  out  the  effect  of  different  letters  upon  the  ear. 


rsoft.. 

Consonants j 

I  Hard. 

Labials. 
b 

Gutturals, 
g 

Linguals. 
d 

Dentals. 

V 

Sibilants, 
z 

P 

ck 

t 

f 

s 

Vowels 

Liquids,  or  semivowels. 
Aspirates 

a 

1 
h 

h 

e 
m 
qu 

X— ks 

i 
n 

J— dg 

o 
r 

u  wy 

Double  letters 

orqs 

The  soft  consonants  are  pleasing  to  the  ear,  while  the  hard  con- 
sonants are  more  harsh.  Compare  slab  and  slap,  played  and  plot, 
stave  and  staff.  The  liquids  are  especially  melodious.  The  aspirates 
and  double  letters  are  more  rough. 

Combinations  of  letters  of  one  kind  are  very  inharmonious  ;  as, 
strengthenedst,  farnering.  Derivatives  from  long  compounds  are  gen- 
erally disagreeable ;  as,  wrongheadedness,  unsuccessfulness.  Words 
with  a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables  and  long  words  having  the 
accent  near  the  beginning,  are  diflBcult  to  pronounce,  and,  accord- 
ingly, unpleasant  to  the  ear ;  as,  derdgatorily,  peremptorily. 


(2)    Avoid    all    disagreeable    combinations    of  words. 

These  are  caused  by  (1)  a  repetition  of  the  same  sound ; 
as,  "I  confess  with  humility  the  sterility  of  my  poetic 
ability,  and  the  debility  of  my  rationality  ;"  (2)  a  hiatus 
produced  by  two  similar  sounds  in  succession;  as,  ^' Idea 
and  destiny;"  (3)  a  cumulation  of  consonants;  as, 
"  Strengthenedst  tJiou  him  in  his  struggles  9  " 


(3)  Arrange  the  words  so  that  the  distribution  of  ac- 
cent will  impart  rhythm  to  the  movement  of  the  sentences. 


iiTYLE.  69 

This  is  especially  important  in  compositions  designed  for 
oral  delivery.  The  art  of  rhythmical  writing  is  one  of  the 
most  rare,  but  one  of  the  most  enviable  of  literary  attain- 
ments. As  in  the  composition  of  music  and  poetry,  much 
depends  upon  the  natural  ear. 

"  In  tlie  usual  forms  of  familiar  prose  writing,"  says  Russell, 
"  little  regard  is  paid  to  the  placing  of  words,  as  respects  the  effect 
of  accent.  Words  in  plain,  unpretending  composition,  follow  each 
other,  with  but  slight  reference  to  the  result  in  mere  sound.  Some 
writers,  however,  are  distinguished  by  a  style  which  is  more  or  less 
measured  and  rhythmical  to  the  ear.  The  stately  and  formal  style 
of  oratorical  declamation,  sometimes  assumes  this  shape,  as  does 
also  the  language  of  sublime,  pathetic,  and  beautiful  description. 
Some  writers,  by  high  excellence  of  natural  or  of  cultivated  ear, 
succeed  in  imparting  an  exquisite  but  unobtrusive  melody  to  their 
sentences,  which  forms  one  of  the  principal  attractions  of  their  style. 
We  have  instances  of  these  various  effects  of  the  selection  and  ar- 
rangement of  words,  in  the  majestic  and  measured  declamation  of 
Chatham,  or  in  the  lofty  and  magnificent  strains  of  Scripture.  The 
cadences  of  Ossian  exemplify,  sometimes,  the  power  and  beauty  of 
metrical  arrangement,  and,  sometimes,  the  cloying  effect  of  its  too 
frequent  and  uniform  recurrence.  Every  cultivated  ear  is  familiar 
with  the  chaste  and  pleasing  turn  of  the  sentences  of  Addison,  the 
easy  flow  of  Goldsmith's,  the  ambitious  swell  of  those  of  Johnson, 
the  broken  and  capricious  phrases  of  Sterne,  the  noble  harmony  of 
Burke,  the  abruptness  of  Swift,  and  the  graceful  smoothness  of 
Irving." 

(4)  Attend  to  the  cadence  of  sentences.  By  cadence  is 
meant  the  falling  of  the  voice  before  coming  to  a  full  stop. 
The  most  musical  cadences  are  made  on  words  of  four 
syllables,  accented  on  the  first  and  third ;  as,  circumstan- 
tial, ohservdtion.  Words  of  three  syllables,  accented  on  the 
second,  as,  demonstrate,  proportion,  reflection,  make  a  very 
agreeable  cadence.  Monosyllables  or  a  series  of  unaccented 
syllables   make  a  disagreeable   cadence.     Accordingly  a 


70  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

sentence  should  not  close  with  any  small  word,  but  with 
the  longest  words  and  most  sonorous  members. 

It  is  impossible  that  every  sentence  should  close  with  any  particu- 
lar kind  of  word,  and  it  is  absurd  to  insist  on  sacrificing  a  perfectly 
appropriate  word,  when  its  only  fault  is  inharmoniousness,  for  a  less 
expressive  but  more  musical  cadence.  The  rule  is  intended  simply 
to  call  attention  to  the  resources  of  harmony. 


(5)  When  possible,  suit  the  sound  to  the  sense.  Words 
which  resemble  the  sounds  which  they  describe  are  called 
onomatopoetic.  Numerous  words  in  our  language,  such  as 
hiss,  whiz,  clash,  crash,  roar,  and  patter,  readily  suggest 
their  meaning  by  their  sound,  Such  words  are  very  sig- 
nificant. Although  the  associations  which  they  recall  are 
often  fanciful,  they  serve  an  important  purpose  in  descrip- 
tive and  narrative  style. 

Some  assert  that  every  articulate  sound  is  naturally  significant. 
They  maintain  that  "the  vowel  constitutes  the  life  and  soul  of  a 
word,  the  consonant  its  body  and  form."  For  example,  a,  as  in 
fath&r,  is  the  natural  expression  of  passion,  pain,  or  gi-ief  ;  u  is  the 
lowest  vowel,  and  expresses  low  and  obscure  sounds  ;  i  is  the  high- 
est vowel,  and,  accordingly,  expresses  what  is  clear,  shrill,  bright, 
or  small  ;  h  indicates  an  aspiration  after  something ;  lo,  from  its 
extreme  weakness,  expresses  weakness,  gentleness,  etc. ;  I  expresses 
what  is  soft  or  soothing ;  r  denotes  rattling  sounds  and  distorted 
motion ;  the  gutturals  represent  hollowness  and  holding ;  the  Un- 
guals, pointing  or  demonstrating ;  the  labials,  extension  and  aver- 
sion, etc.  However  near  the  truth  these  statements  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  these  so-called  "natural  significations"  are  of  small 
value  in  expressing  thought  harmoniously.  In  the  "  Science  of 
Rhetoric  "  examples  are  given  to  show  that  language  can  represent 
(1)  other  sounds  ;  (2)  time  and  motion  ;  (3)  size  ;  (4)  ease  and  difii- 
culty ;  (5)  the  agreeable  and  the  disagreeable ;  and  (6)  climax  in 
sense. 


STYLE.  71 

In  this  section  on    "Sentences,"  we  have  consid- 
ered :— 

1,  Definitions, 

2,  Division  of  the  Subject, 

I,   CON  CORD . 

1,  Rules  for  Simple  Sentences, 

2,  Rules  for  Cofnpound  and  Complex  Sentences, 

II.   CLEARNESS, 

1,  The  Importance  of  Clearness, 

2,  Rules  for  Clearness, 

III,    UNITY, 

1,  The  Meaning  of  Unity, 

2,  Rules  for  Unity, 

IV.  ENERGY, 

1,  The  Meaning  of  Energy, 

2,  Rules  for  Energy. 

V,  HARMONY, 

1.  The  Value  of  Harmony, 

2.  Rules  for  Harmony, 


SBCTIOH   in. 

PARAGRAPHS. 
1.  The  Importance  of  Paragraphs. 

A  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sentences  that  are  closely 
related  in  thought.  The  great  importance  of  paragraphs 
is  evident  frcm  the  definition.  They  serve  to  give  dis- 
tinctness to  the  sequence  of  thoughts.    Probably  the  usual 


72  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

neglect  of  paragraphing  is  owing  to  an  imaginary  difficulty 
in  the  art.  A  few  simple  rules  will  serve  to  make  the 
subject  plain. 

Nearly  all  the  works  on  composition  almost  ignore  tlie  division 
of  discourse  into  paragraphs,  and,  as  a  consequence,  many  otherwise 
good  writers  either  make  no  paragraphs  or  place  every  important 
sentence  by  itself. 

2.  Rules  for  Paragraphs. 

(1)  Make  an  analysis  before  writing.  This  may  be 
either  written  or  mental,  according  to  the  character  and 
extent  of  the  composition. 

This  direction  is  of  very  great  importance,  and  after  a  few 
trials  its  great  advantage  will  be  evident.  In  a  short  time  the  habit 
of  making  a  mental  analysis  will  be  formed,  and  every  composition 
will  gain  in  clearness,  because  of  the  methodical  arrangement  of  the 
thoughts. 

(2)  Maice  each  distinct  point  in  the  analysis  the  sub- 
ject of  a  paragraph.  All  the  sentences  written  to  expand, 
explain,  or  illustrate  this  germ  thought  will  have  a  con- 
nection that  will  justify  their  being  grouped  together. 

A  paragraph  is  made  by  commencing  on  a  new  line,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  beginning  of  the  line.  The  sentences  are  then 
written  in  close  succession,  until  the  paragraph  is  completed.  This 
group  of  sentences  is  a  paragraph. 


(3)  Observe  unity  in  the  construction  of  a  paragraph. 

This  rule  excludes  all  digressions  from  the  principal 
thought  of  the  paragraph.  No  sentence  has  any  right  to 
a  position  in  connection  with  others,  unless  it  is  closely 
related  to  the  preceding  or  the  following  sentence. 


STYLE.  73 

It  is  frequently  advisable  to  state  the  main  thouglit  in  a  br|ef  and 
clear  sentence.  This  may  be  placed  at  the  commencement  of  the 
paragraph,  and  then  explained,  illustrated,  proved,  or  contradicted, 
as  the  case  may  require ;  or,  it  may  be  placed  at  the  end,  as  a  kind 
of  summary  or  conclusion. 


(4)  Construct  the  sentences  so  as  to  secure  variety  in 
their  length  and  rhythm.  Monotony  results  from  a  con- 
tinued uniformity  of  length  or  structure.  No  one  kind  of 
sentence  is  absolutely  the  best.  Here,  as  everywhere  in 
composition,  variety  is  an  excellence. 

The  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph  should  be  as  short  as  the  sense 
will  permit.  It  is  discouraging  to  a  reader  to  find  himself  lost  in  a 
labyrinth  at  the  very  beginning.  When  interest  and  feeling  have 
been  aroused,  longer  sentences  are  more  appropriate.  A  very  short 
sentence  after  a  very  long  one  is  objectionable. 

Variety  in  a  paragraph  may  be  of  less  importance  than  some 
other  quality.  For  example,  if  a  paragraph  be  devoted  to  a  con- 
tinued antithesis,  a  uniformly  balanced  structure  of  sentences 
should  be  studied,  as  in  the  celebrated  parallel  between  Homer  and 
Virgil. 

"Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one,  we  most 
admire  the  man  ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding 
impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty;  Homer  scatters  with  a 
generous  profusion  ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like 
the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow  ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its 
banks,  with  a  constant  stream." 

A  style  characterized  chiefly  by  short  sentences  is  called  by  the 
French  the  style  coupe.  When  the  sentences  are  long,  and  closely 
joined  by  conjunctions,  we  have  tKe  style  periodique.  The  first  is 
adapted  to  familiar,  light,  and  informal  writing ;  the  latter  to  elab- 
orate, exact,  and  dignified  composition. 

(5)  Make  the  paragraph  progressive  in  meaning  and 
in  sound.  There  is  little  reason  for  writing  unless  thought 
groios  with  the  marshalling  of  words.     As  in  a  sentence, 


74  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BRETORIG. 

so  in  a  paragraph,  the  effect  should  be  cumulative.  Hence 
the  last  sentence  should  seldom  be  a  short  one,  but  more 
sonorous  than  its  predecessors.  A  terse  and  forcible  sum- 
mary of  a  paragraph  constitutes  a  fitting  close,  but  it 
must  be  full  of  meaning  or  it  will  seem  insignificant. 

This  rule  forbids  "writing  in  a  circle,"  which  is  almost  as 
grave  a  fault  as  "reasoning  in  a  circle;"  and  the  two  vices  are 
often  companions.  A  writer  who  holds  this  rule  in  mind  will  never 
become  tedious  to  an  intelligent  reader.  He  will  bring  his  para- 
graph to  a  close  when  he  has  once  expressed  his  thought,  and  not 
strain  after  the  unattainable  through  endless  repetitions. 

(6)  Connect  the  sentences  so  that  their  relations  will 
be  obvious.  This  is  of  vital  importance.  The  highest 
art  is  required  to  cause  the  stream  of  thought  to  flow 
smoothly,  bearing  the  reader  along  without  doubts  or 
interruptions.  Sentences  are  connected  by  the  co-ordinate 
conjunctions,  and  the  expression  of  continuous  thought, 
accordingly,  requires  skill  in  their  management. 

The  importance  of  using  proper  connectives  is  illustrated  under 
the  third  rule  for  Compound  and  Complex  Sentences.  A  few  addi- 
tional observations  may  be  of  value  in  this  connection. 

Subordinate  conjunctions  connect  clauses;  co-ordinate  conjunc- 
tions connect  sentences.     The  co-ordinate  connectives  are : 

1    Cumulative  •  as  \  ^^^'  ^^^^'  ^*^^^^^»   again,  besides,  further, 

'      '  (  etc. 
2.  Adversative-  as, -S^^^'  tlien,  still,  yet,  only,  nevertheless,  hovr 

'  (  ever,  etc. 
8.  Illative  •  as         \  therefore,  wherefore,  hence,  consequently,  ac- 
(  cordingly. 

It  is  by  the  proper  use  of  these  connectives  that  isolated  threads 
of  thought  are  woven  into  a  beautiful  fabric.  It  requires  as  much 
judgment,  however,  to  atoid  the  excessive  use  of  conjunctions  as  to 


STYLE.  75 

use  them  correctly.    Here  is  a  passage  in  which  the  sentences  are 
all  strung  together  by  the  unskillful  use  of  and  : 

'■''And  then  those  who  are  of  an  inferior  condition,  that  they  labor  and  be 
diligent  in  the  work  of  an  honest  calling,  for  this  is  privately  good  and  profitable 
unto  men  and  their  families  ;  and  to  those  who  are  above  this  necessity,  and  are 
in  a  better  capacity  to  maintain  good  works  properly  so  called,  works  of  piety 
and  charity  and  justice,  that  they  be  careful  to  promote  and  advance  them,  ac- 
cording to  their  power  and  opportunity,  because  these  things  are  publicly  good 
and  beneficial  to  mankind." 


3.   Examples  of  Paragraphs.* 

The  most  practical  way  of  learning  how  to  combine  sen- 
tences in  paragraphs,  is  to  analyze  a  variety  of  different 
combinations  by  good  writers.  The  following  examples 
illustrate  some  of  the  methods  of  constructing  paragraphs. 

(1)  Sometimes  an  expanded  sentence  constitutes  a 
paragraph.  Jeremy  Taylor  furnishes  the  following  ex- 
ample : 

"Prayer  is  an  action  and  a  state  of  intercourse  and  desire  exactly 
opposite  to  this  character  of  anger.  Prayer  is  an  action  of  likeness 
to  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  spirit  of  gentleness  and  love— like  simplicity, 
an  imitation  of  the  holy  Jesus  whose  spirit  is  meek,  up  to  the  great- 
ness of  the  biggest  example  ;  and  a  conformity  to  God,  whose  anger 
is  always  just,  and  marches  slowly  and  is  without  transportation 
and  often  hindered,  and  never  hasty,  and  full  of  mercy.  Prayer  is 
the  peace  of  our  spirit,  the  stillness  of  our  thoughts,  the  evenness  of 
recollection,  the  seat  of  meditation,  the  rest  of  our  cares,  and  the 
calm  of  our  tempest.  Prayer  is  the  issue  of  a  quiet  mind,  of  un- 
troubled thoughts,  it  is  the  daughter  of  charity,  and  the  sister  of 

meekness Anger  is  a  perfect  alienation  of  the  mind 

from  prayer,  and  therefore  is  contrary  to  that  attention  which  pre- 
sents our  prayers  in  a  right  line  to  God." 


*  These  examples  with  several  others  may  be  found  in  Angus's 
"  Hand-book  of  the  English  Tongue." 


76  TEE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOIUG. 

(2)  Sometimes  a  general  statement  is  followed  by  a 
specific,  and  that  by  an  individual  instance.  The  follow- 
ing from  Addison  is  an  example : 

"  [General]  Music  among  those  who  were  styled  the  chosen  peo- 
ple was  a  religious  art.  [Specific]  The  songs  of  Zion,  which  we 
bave  reason  to  think  were  in  high  repute  among  the  courts  of 
eastern  monarchs,  were  nothing  else  but  psalms  that  adored  or  cele- 
brated the  Supreme  Being.  [Indimdual]  The  greatest  conqueror 
in  tliis  holy  nation,  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Grecian  lyrics,  did 
not  only  compose  the  words  of  his  divine  odes,  but  generally  set 
them  to  music  himself ;  after  which,  his  works,  though  they  were 
consecrated  to  the  tabernacle,  became  the  national  entertainment, 
as  well  as  the  devotion  of  his  people." 

(3)  Sometimes  the  hint  of  each  successive  sentence 
is  suggested  by  a  previous  word.  This  is  the  common 
style  of  Burke.  It  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  tedious 
expansion.  The  following  example  from  Burke  illustrates 
this  method: 

"  The  other  sort  of  men  were  the  politicians.  To  them,  who  had 
little  or  not  at  all  reflecied  on  the  subject,  religion  was  in  itself  no 
object  of  love  or  hatred.  They  disbelieved  it  and  that  was  all.  Nc  utral 
with  regard  to  that  object,  they  took  the  order  which  in  the  present 
state  of  things  might  best  answer  their  purposes.  They  soon  found 
that  they  could  not  do  without  the  philosophers ;  and  the  philoso- 
phers soon  made  them  sensible  that  the  destruction  of  religion  was 
to  supply  them  with  means  of  conquest,  first  at  home  and  then 
abroad." 

(4)  Sometimes  the  theme  is  stated,  and  then  proved 
or  illustrated.  The  following  example  from  Harris  illus- 
trates this  mode  of  developing  a  paragraph  : 

"  [Theme]  When  most  disguised  and  repressed,  the  wisdom  of 
the  gospel  has  been  modifying  our  philosophy  and  teaching  a  loftier 
system  of  its  own.  [Illustrations  and  Proofs.]  A  Howard,  sounding 
and  circumnavigating  the  ocean  of  human  misery,  is  only  an  obedient 


STYLE.  77 

agent  of  its  philanthropy.  A  Clarkson  and  a  Wilberforce  have  only 
given  utterance  to  its  tender  and  righteous  appeals  for  the  slave, 
A  Raikes,  a  Bell,  and  a  Lancaster  have  simply  remembered  its  long 
neglected  injunction,  "  Suffer  little  children  to  come  unto  me.'  " 

(5)  The  theme  is  sometimes  proved  by  showing  the 
results  of  the  contrary.  The  theme  may  be  simply  held 
in  mind,  or  it  may  be  stated,  as  in  the  following  example  : 

''[Theme]  I  am  fully  persuaded  that  one  of  the  best  springs  of 
generous  and  worthy  action  is  to  have  generous  and  worthy  thoughts 
of  ourselves.  [The  contrary]  Whoever  has  a  mean  opinion  of  the 
dignity  of  his  nature,  will  act  in  no  higher  a  rank  than  he  has  allotted 
himself  in  his  own  estimation,  {Besvlt  of  this  contrary]  If  he  con- 
siders his  being  as  circumscribed  by  the  uncertain  term  of  a  few 
years,  his  designs  will  be  contracted  into  the  same  narrow  space  he 
imagines  is  to  bound  his  existence." 

In  this   section   on    "Paragraphs,"  we   have   con- 
sidered :— 

i.  The  Ttnportance  of  Paragraphs, 

2.  Rules  for  Paragraphs. 

3,  Examples  of  Paragraphs, 


SECTION    lY. 

FIGURES. 
1.  Definition  of  Figures. 

A  Figure  of  speech  is  an  expression  in  which  one 
thing  is  said  in  the  form  of  another  related  to  it.  Figures 
are  usually  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  expressions  in 
which  the  spelling  is  changed,  or  Figures  of  Orthography ; 
(2)  expressions  in  which  the  form  of  a  word  is  changed, 


78  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOEia 

or  Figures  of  Etymology ;  (3)  expressions  in  which  the 
constpuotion  is  changed,  or  Figures  of  Syntax ;  and  (4) 
expressions  in  which  the  mode  Of  thought  is  changed,  or 
Figures  of  Rhetoric.  Only  the  Figures  of  Rhetoric  will 
be  treated  of  here.* 


The  distinction  between  figurative  and  literal  expression,  al- 
though precisely  stated  in  the  definition  of  a  figure,  may  be  more 
plainly  indicated  by  means  of  an  example.  If  we  say,  "He  fought 
fearlessly,"  referring  to  a  soldier  in  battle,  we  express  the  thought 
literally,  that  is,  with  exact  conformity  to  the  fact.  "  Fear "  is  a 
real  sentiment  of  the  human  mind,  and  when  we  say  that  the  sol- 
dier ioxi^hXfear-less-ly,  we  express  the  literal  truth,  that  he  fought 
in  a  manner  without  fear.  If,  now,  we  are  reminded  of  a  lion,  be- 
cause a  lion  shows  no  fear,  and  say,  "  He  fought  like  a  lion,"  the 
expression  is  figurative ;  for  we  express  the  exact  fact  in  a  form 
"  related  to  it. "  If  we  wish  to  express  the  thought  with  great  vivid- 
ness, we  may  drop  the  statement  of  a  resemblance  between  the 
soldier  and  the  lion,  and  say,  "  He  was  a  lion  in  the  fight." 


2.  The  Orig^in  of  Fig-ures. 

The  origin  of  figures  has  usually  been  referred  to  the 
poverty  of  language  in  its  early  stages  of  development. 
This  is  but  a  partial  and  unsatisfactory  explanation.  It 
is  true  that  new  objects  and  acts  required  new  names,  but 
why  were  old  words  used  in  new  senses  rather  than  new 
words  formed  ?  The  answer  is  found  in  the  nature  of  the 
human  mind.  All  our  notions  and  thoughts  are  con- 
nected by  certain  laws  of  association.  Thus,  ideas  which 
are  related  by'resemblance,  contrast,  or  contiguity  in  time 
or  space,  are  likely  to  recur  to  the  mind  together.     Some 

*  Definitions  of  all  the  fifjures  will  be  found  in  the  Glossary  of 
Grammatical  and  Rhetorical  Terms,  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 


STYLE.  79 

of  these  associated  ideas  are  more  concrete  and  specific 
than  others,  and  hence  serve  to  express  the  abstract  and 
general  more  clearly  than  literal  statement.  These  two 
facts,  the  early  poverty  of  expression  and  the  natural 
preference  for  the  concrete,  especially  in  the  imaginative 
periods  of  life,— explain  the  origin  of  figurative  language. 

That  necessity  alone  does  not  fully  explain  the  origin  of  figura- 
tive expression,  is  further  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  best  modern 
writers  take  pains  to  employ  figurative  rather  than  plain  language. 
This  would  not  be  the  case  if  figures  did  not  in  some  way  contribute 
to  the  effectiveness  of  expression.  The  manner  in  which  they  assist 
in  imparting  force  to  language,  has  been  suggested  above,  and  will 
be  more  distinctly  stated  in  the  following  paragraph. 

3.  Tlie  Advantages  of  Figures. 

Some  writers  speak  of  figures  as  "ornaments,"  and 
cherish  the  idea  that  their  chief  advantage  is  to  embellish 
style.  While  they  often  adorn  jmd  beautify,  their  real 
excellence  is  more  substantial.  The  following  are  their 
principal  uses. 

(1)  They  enrich  language.  Every  language  is  composed 
of  a  few  hundred  roots  variously  combined  to  express 
thousands  of  distinctions.  The  process  by  which  language 
grows  is  that  of  figurative  expression.  All  mental  opera- 
tions are  expressed  figuratively,  that  is,  through  material 
forms  and  processes  related  to  them  in  some  way. 

Most  of  the  words  used  to  express  mental  action  are  "fossil 
metaphors,"  forms  once  known  to  be  figurative,  but  now  so  familiar 
that  their  figurative  character  is  forgotten.  Etymology  aids  us  in 
tracing  out  the  history  of  these  words.  Intellect,  for  example,  (from 
the  Latin  inter,  between,  and  legere,  to  gather)  is  based  upon  the 
primary  notion  of  picking  out  and  comparing  things  ;  and  so  has 


80  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  EHETORIC. 

come  to  designate  the  faculty  of  thought.  We  speak  of  feeling  a 
remark,  weighing  an  argument,  balancing  considerations,  etc.  The 
single  root  spec,  which  expresses  the  general  notion  of  sight,  has 
given  rise  to  about  250  words,  such  as,  species,  special,  especial, 
specimen,  spice,  spicy,  specious,  specialty,  specific,  specialization, 
specie,  spectre,  spectrum,  spectacle,  spectator,  spectral,  speculum, 
specular,  speculation,  suspect,  aspect,  circumspect,  inspect,  prospect, 
respect,  retrospect,  conspicuous,  perspicuity,  perspective,  suspicion, 
suspicious,  etc. 

(2)  Figures  intensify  the  expression  of  emotion.  They 
do  this  by  associating  the  object  of  thought  with  those 
which  from  their  visible,  tangible,  or  naturally  aflTecting 
character,  stimulate  the  feelings.  In  this  manner  they 
dignify  or  degrade  that  with  which  they  are  associated. 
The  writer  surrounds  his  ideal  with  a  halo  of  loveliness, 
or  casts  a  shadow  of  contempt  over  the  character  that  he 
detests. 

The  value  of  figures  in  elevating  the  emotions  is  illustrated 
by  the  following  description  by  Campbell : 

Eternal  Hope !    When  yonder  spheres  sublime 
Pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  Time, 
Thy  joyous  youth  began  ;  but  not  to  fade 
When  all  the  sister  planets  have  decayed; 
When  wrapped  in  fire  the  realms  of  ether  glow. 
And  Heaven's  last  thunder  shakes  the  world  oelow, 
Thou  undismayed,  shall  o'er  the  ruins  smile, 
And  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile." 

The  following  by  John  Kandolph  illustrates  the  effect  of  degrad- 
ing figures: 

"It  is  a  shame,  Mr.  President,  that  the  noble  bull-dogs  of  the  administration, 
should  be  wasting  their  precious  time  in  worrying  the  rats  of  the  opposition.— 
Kats,  did  I  say  ?— mice  1  mice ! " 


(3)  Figures  give  clearness  to  abstract  ideas.    Suppose 
we  wish  to  say,  "  When  we  indulge  too  freely  in  pleasure, 


STYLE.  81 

we  are  sure  to  receive  injury  from  the  excess."  Expressed 
in  this  literal  form,  the  thought  is  somewhat  abstract  and 
also  somewhat  commonplace.  If,  now,  we  use  a  figure  of 
speech,  we  may  give  this  thought  a  clear  and  attractive 
expression ;  as,  ^'  When  we  dip  too  deeply  into  pleasure, 
we  always  stir  a  sediment  that  renders  it  impure  and 
noxious."  The  relation  of  cause  and  effect  is  at  once  evi- 
dent, and  the  thought  loses  its  commonplace  character. 

4.  Kinds  of  Figures, 

Figures  of  Rhetoric  have  been  variously  classified.  Any 
exhaustive  classification  is  both  tedious  and  useless  to  the 
learner.  The  most  important  figures  of  rhetoric  are 
enumerated  and  illustrated  below. 

The  simplest  and  most  philosophical  classification  of  rhetorical 
figures  is  based  on  the  forms  of  association  by  which  they  are  sug- 
gested. This  plan  is  adopted  in  the  "  Science  of  Rhetoric,"  where 
the  philosophy  of  figurative  language  is  fully  explained  in  connec- 
tion with  the  general  law  of  style,  the  economy  of  mental  power. 
The  following  scheme  presents  an  outline  of  the  classification : 

r  1.  Simile. 
X    T^       •.   -I        T%         11  J  3.  Metaphor. 

I.  Founded  on  Resemblance      g    Personification. 

L  4.  Allegory. 

1.  Synecdoche. 

2.  Metonymy. 

3.  Exclamation. 

4.  Hyperbole. 

5.  Apostrophe. 
L  6.  Vision. 

1.  Antithesis. 

2.  Climax. 

3.  Epigram. 
I  4.  Interrogation. 
'^  5.  Irony. 


II,  Founded  on  Contiguity 


III.  Founded  on  Contrast 


82  TEE  ELEMENTS  OF  BEETORIG. 

Some  prefer  to  divide  figures  according  to  their  effect  rather  than 
according  to  their  nature.  On  this  principle  figures  are  of  two  main 
classes, 

I.  Figures  of  Intuition. 

II.  Figures  of  Emphasis. 

The  former  present  an  idea  to  the  imagination  in  a  sensible  form  ; 
the  latter  present  no  picture  to  the  imagination,  but  emphasize  some 
thought.  The  distinction  points  out  the  twofold  use  of  figures  as  a 
means  of  expression,  but  fails  as  a  perfect  principle  of  division,  as 
some  figures  at  the  same  time  present  images  and  emphasize  the 
thought. 

Some  writers  distinguish  between  tropes  and  figures.  A  Trope 
(from  the  Greek  rpsKEcv,  trepein,  to  turn)  is  a  word  turned  aside  from 
its  literal  meaning.  The  distinction  between  tropes  and  figures  is 
useless,  after  adopting  the  definition  of  figures  already  given. 


(1)  A  Simile  *  (from  the  Latin  similis,  like)  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  resemblance  of  one  object,  act,  or  relation  to 
another.  It  is  generally  introduced  by  some  word  of  com- 
parison, such  as  UTce  or  as.  Thus  Milton- says  of  the 
reprobate  angels'  banner,  that  it 

"  Shone  like  a  meteor  streaming  on  the  wind." 


A  simile  does  not  always  state  a  direct  resemblance  between 
objects.     Sometimes  the  resemblance  is  between  the  causes  ;  as, 

"  I  scarcely  understand  my  own  intent ; 
But  silk-worm  like,  so  long  within  have  wrought, 
That  I  am  lost  in  my  own  web  of  thought." 

Here  the  comparison  is  in  substance ;  as  the  internal  operations 
of  the  insect  result  in  its  own  entanglement,  so  the  reflections  of  the 
poet  result  in  his  bewilderment. 

Sometimes  the  resemblance  is  one  of  effects  ;  as,  "  The  music  of 


*  For  the  pronunciation  of  the  names  of  the  figures,  see  the  Index 
and  Glossary  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 


STYLE.  83 

Carryl  was,  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  pleasant  and 
mournful  to  the  soul."  There  is  no  resemblance  between  music 
and  the  memory  of  past  joys,  but  the  efEects  are  similar. 

Sometimes  the  resemblance  is  one  of  relations,  or  a  mere  anal- 
ogy ;  as,  "  Reason  is  to  faith  as  the  eye  to  the  telescope." 

(2)  A  Metaphor  (from  the  Greek  iieracpipeiv,  metaplterein, 
to  carry  over,  or  transfer)  is  a  word  used  to  imply  a  re- 
semblance. What  the  simile  plainly  states  the  metaphor 
merely  suggests.  "He  fought  like  a  lion,"  is  a  simile. 
"  He  was  a  lio7i  in  the  fight,"  expresses  the  same  thought 
as  a  metaphor.  The  statement  that  he  was  a  lion,  is 
understood  to  mean  that  he  was  like  a  lion.  The  meta- 
phor is,  therefore,  an  abridged  simile. 

The  metaphor  is  evidently  a  bolder  and  more  lively  figure 
than  the  simile.  As  it  results  from  a  more  intensely  excited  imagi- 
nation, so  it  conveys  a  more  forcible  conception.  A  metaphor  is 
more  like  a  picture  than  a  simile  is,  and  hence  the  graphic  use  of 
metaphor  is  called  "word-painting."  The  greater  vividness  of 
metaphor  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  following  forms  of  expres- 
sion, in  which  the  same  idea  is  presented  as  a  simile  and  as  a 
metaphor : 

Simile. — "  The  king  is  like  a  bird  whose  feathers  not  only  adorn, 
but  support  his  flight.  As  the  bird  when  stripped  of  its  plumage, 
remains  fixed  to  the  earth,  so  the  king,  when  deprived  of  his  honors, 
cannot  rise  above  others." 

Metaphor. — "  The  feather  that  adorns,the  royal  bird,  supports 
its  flight.     Strip  him  of  his  plumage,  and  you  fix  him  to  the  earth." 

(3)  Personification  (from  the  Latin  persona,  person, 
and  facere,  to  make)  consists  in  treating  an  inanimate  ob- 
ject as  if  animate  ;  as,  '^  The  morning  stars  sang  together." 
The  figure  is  founded  upon  a  resemblance  of  the  thing 
personified  to  a  person.    The  notion  of  such  resemblance 


84  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOEIC. 

is  produced  by  an  excited  imagination,  and,  accordingly, 
the  figure  is  appropriate  only  as  the  expression  of  strong 
emotion. 

There  are  two  distinguishable  forms  of  personification : 

(1)  When  personality  is  ascribed;  as,— 

"  A  thin  veil  hangs  over  the  landscape  and  flood, 
And  the  hills  are  all  mellow'd  in  haze  ; 
While  Fall,  creeping  on  like  a  monk  in  his  hood. 
Plucks  the  thick  rustling  wealth  of  the  maize." 

(2)  When  some  quality  of  life  is  attributed ;   as,  "  The  mad 

tempest,"  "  the  hungry  fire,"  "  the  whMing  wind,"  etc.  The  latter 
kind  of  personification  is  closely  allied  to  metaphor,  and  is  common 
in  all  animated  writing.  The  former  is  more  appropriate  to  poetry 
and  passionate  oratory. 

Since  the  English  language  recognizes  only  natural  gender,  while 
the  Latin,  Greek,  French,  German,  and  most  other  languages  admit 
also  a  grammatical,  or  constructive  gencfer,  our  language  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  this  kind  of  figure.  In  English  we  may  per- 
sonify any  inanimate  object,  if  we  refer  to,  it  by  the  pronouns  his 
or  her,  while  in  many  other  languages  such  objects  would  regularly 
require  one  of  these  pronouns. 

Personification  explains  grammatical  gender  in  the  ancient  Ian- 
guages,  and  also  accounts  for  many  of  the  myths  of  the  early  nature 
worship.  The  relation  o\'  personification  to  m3rthology  is  explained 
in  the  "  Science  of  Rhetoric." 


(4)  An  Allegory  (from  the  Greek  aXXog,  alios,  other,  and 
ayopivuv,  agoreuein,  to  speak)  is  a  form  of  expression  in 
which  the  words  are  symbolical  of  something.  The  alle- 
gory is  either  a  *' continued  metaphor,"  or  several  cognate 
metaphors.  The  following  beautiful  allegory  by  Long- 
fellow, starting  with  the  metaphorical  representation  of 
the  state  as  a  ship,  expands  the  metaphor  into  a  complete 
description : 


STYLE.  85 


'Thou  too,  sail  on,  O  ship  of  state  I 
SaU  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great  1 
Humanity,  with  all  its  fears, 
With  all  its  hopes  of  future  years, 
Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate  I 
We  know  what  master  laid  thy  keel. 
What  workmen  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel ; 
Who  made  each  mast,  and  sail,  and  rope, 
What  anvils  rang,  what  hammers  beat ; 
In  what  a  forge  and  what  a  heat 
Were  shaped  the  anchors  of  thy  hope  ! 
Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock — 
"Tis  of  the  wave  and  not  the  rock ; 
'Tis  but  the  flapping  of  the  sail. 
And  not  a  rent  made  by  the  gale  ! 
In  spite  of  rock  and  tempest  roar, 
In  spite  of  false  lights  on  the  shore, 
Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea  1 
Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  are  all  with  thee ; 
Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our  prayers,  our  tears, 
Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears. 
Are  all  with  thee,  are  all  with  thee." 


Some  of  our  finest   literature   is   In  the   form   of   allegory. 

Pope's  "  Temple  of  Fame,"  Banyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  Spen- 
ser's "  Faerie  Queene,"  Swift's  "  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  and  "  Gulliver's 
Travels "  are  long  allegories.  Several  examples  are  found  in  the 
"  Spectator,"  as  "  The  Vision  of  Mirza,"  159  ;  "  The  Paradise  of 
Fools,"  460;  "  Luxuiy  and  Avarice,"  55. 

The  chief  dangers  in  allegorical  writing  are  confusion  and 
obscurity.  The  metaphor  must  be  developed  with  consistency,  and 
this  requires  considerable  skill.  An  allegory  becomes  an  enigma 
when  it  is  difficult  to  understand. 


(5)  A  Synecdoche  (from  the  Greek  ovv,  syn,  with,  and 
EKdEx^oOai,  to  receive)  is  a  word  which  expresses  either 
more  or  less  than  it  literally  denotes.  This  figure  is 
founded  on  contiguity.  It  has  three  principal  forms :  (1) 
a  pari  is  put  for  the  wJioIe  of  an  object ;  as,  "  All  hands 
[that  is,  all  the  men]  were  at  work ; "  (2)  the  whole  is  put 
for  a  pa7't ;  as,  *^The  world  [that  is,  people  generally] 
knows  his  virtue ;  "  (3)  the  material  is  put  for  the  thing 


Se  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIG. 

itself;  as,  "The  marUe  [that  is,   the  marble  statue]  is 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  art." 


The  advantage  of  synecdoche  seems  to  lie  in  its  limitation  of 
the  attention  to  that  particular  which  we  wish  to  empliasize.  It  is 
a  natural  expedient  for  clothing  thought  in  a  dress  of  specific  and 
concrete  words. 


(6)  A  Metonymy  (from  the  Greek  \iETd,  meta,  indicating 
change,  and  owfia,  onyma,  name)  is  a  designation  of  an 
object  by  one  of  its  accompaniments.  Rhetoricians  have 
divided  and  subdivided  metonymies  until  the  most  capa- 
cious memory  would  be  taxed  to  retain  them.  A  three- 
fold classification  will  sufiice  for  our  purpose.  (1)  The 
effect  is  put  for  the  cause,  or  the  cause  is  put  for  the  effect  ; 
as,  **Can  gray  liairs  [that  is,  the  cause,  old  age]  make 
folly  venerable  ?  "  (2)  The  sign  is  put  for  the  tldng  signi- 
fied; as,  ^'ThQpen  [literary  power]  is  mightier  than  the 
sword  [military  power]."  (3)  The  container  is  put  for 
the  thing  contained ;  as,  "The  House  [that  is,  its  occu- 
pants] is  corrupt." 


Metonymy,  like  synecdoche,  Is  based  on  the  contiguity  of  two 
objects  of  thought  in  time  or  space.  This  explains  many  of  the 
anomalous  uses  of  words.  Thus  we  say,  "  Raise  the  window"  and 
"  He  came  in  through  the  window."  The  word  "  window  "  evidently 
means  different  things  in  the  two  sentences.  In  the  first,  it  means 
the  sash  ;  in  the  second,  the  opening  which  the  sash  fills.  Boor,  in 
like  manner,  means  both  the  doorway  and  the  'panel  which  fills  it. 
Cold  means  both  the  state  of  temperature  which  causes  the  sensa- 
tion called  cold,  and  also  the  sensation  itself.  Heat  is  used  in  a  sim- 
ilar way.  We  say  that  a  man  puts  shot  into  his  gun  ;  we  then  speak 
of  hearing  his  shot ;  we  then  declare  that  he  killed  a  bird  a  good 
shot  oflf ;  and,  finally,  we  call  the  marksman  himself  an  excellent 
shot ! 


STYLE.  87 

(7)  An  Exclamation  (from  the  Latin  ex,  out,  and  cla- 
mdre,  to  cry)  is  properly  a  vocal  expression  of  feeling.  It 
is  also  applied  to  written  forms  which  are  intended  to 
express  emotion.  An  exclamation  is  as  natural  as  any 
other  form  of  expression,  and  is  figurative  only  when  used 
to  convey  a  thought  in  the  form  of  an  emotional  outburst. 
The  interjections,  "  Oh ! "  "  Alas !  "  etc.,  are  not  figures. 
An  exclamation  is  figurative  when  what  would  ordinarily 
be  expressed  as  a  simple  declarative  sentence  is  thrown 
into  the  interjection al  form  ;  as,  "What  a  piece  of  work 
is  man!  how  noble  in  reason !  how  infinite  in  faculties!" 

The  ordinary  way  of  expressing  the  thought  would  be,  "  Man  ia 
a  wonderful  work  ;  noble  in  reason,  infinite  in  faculties."  The  vivid 
conception  of  the  thought  excites  feeling,  and  this,  mingling  with 
the  mere  thought-element,  produces  the  exclamatory  form.  Such 
a  figure  evidently  belongs  to  poetry  and  animated  oratory  rather 
than  to  the  sober  declarations  of  ordinary  language. 

(8)  An  Hyperbole  (from  the  Greek  inrep,  hyper,  beyond, 
and  (idXXeLv^  hallein,  to  throw)  is  an  exaggerated  form  of 
statement.  It  consists  in  magnifying  an  object ;  as,  "  He 
was  a  man  of  boundless  knowledge ; "  or  in  diminishing 
an  object;  as,  *^His  soul  grew  restless  in  its  half  acre  of 
existence." 


"  In  sanguine  temperaments  or  impulsive  natures,"  says  Graham, 
"  this  tendency  to  exaggerate  is  very  common.  With  some  per- 
sons, everything  is  magnijtceiit !  splendid!  mhlime! !  awful! ! ! 
They  never  condescend  to  use  more  ordinary  or  moderate  terms. 
They  seem  always  on  stilts,  raised  above  common  mortals.  Some- 
times they  will  carry  this  feeling  so  far  as  to  make  use — no  doubt 
unconsciously— of  contradictory  terms,  such  as  'immensely  small,' 
'exquisitely  ugly,'  *  sublime  nonsense,'  etc.  And  such  expressions 
are  not  confined  to  their  spoken  language,  but  find  their  way  into 


88  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

whatever  they  may  be  called  upon  to  write.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  state  that  this  practice  is  strongly  to  be  reproved.  When  we 
exhaust  the  superlatives  of  our  language  on  trivial  objects,  or  com- 
mon occasions,  what  is  to  be  done  for  terms  fitted  to  express  the 
really  great  or  sublime  ?  Besides,  morally  speaking,  it  has  a  perni- 
cious effect;  for  when  we  once  contract  the  habit  of  indulging  in 
exaggerated  language,  no  one  knows,  how  far  it  may  carry  ns 
beyond  the  bounds  of  truth. " 

A  form  of  expression  directly  opposite  to  hyperbole  is  called 
Litotes.  This  consists  in  excessive  modesty  of  statement ;  as,  "  I 
do  not  think  him  a  great  man/*  meaning  that  the  person  spoken  of 
is  not  only  not  great,  but  even  inferior  to  most  men.  This  form  of 
expression  has  not  always  this  intent. 


(9)  An  Apostrophe  (from  the  Greek  arro,  apo,  from,  and 
arpE(l)€iv,  strephein,  to  turn)  in  a  direct  address  to  the  ab- 
sent as  present,  the  inanimate  as  living,  or  the  abstract  as 
personal.  It  is  closely  allied  with  personification,  with 
which  it  is  often  combined.  The  following  are  examples  : 
"  0,  father  Abraham  1  what  these  Christians  are ! "  "  My 
country^  'tis  of  thee." 

"  PreBnmptuons  man  !  the  reason  would'st  thou  find 
Why  formed  bo  weak,  so  little,  and  so  blind  ?  " 

This  figure  is  expressive  of  strong  feeling,  and  hence  should  be 
used  only  when  the  reader  or  hearer  is  already  under  the  influence 
of  some  emotion.    It  is  chiefly  found  in  poetry  and  oratory. 


(10)  Vision  (from  the  Latin  videre,  to  see)  is  a  figure 
in  which  the  past  or  the  future  is  conceived  of  as  present. 
Jt  is  appropriate  to  animated  description,  as  it  produces 
the  effect  of  an  ideal  presence.  Chatham  uses  vision  when 
he  says:  "From  the  tapestry  that  adorns  these  walls,  the 
immortal  ancestor  of  this  noble  lord  frowns  with  indigna- 
tion at  the  disgrace  of  his  country." 


STYLE.  89 

Lord  Karnes  tinis  explains  the  value  of  ideal  presence.: 

"  Upon  the  whole,  it  is  by  means  of  ideal  presence  that  our  passions  are  ex- 
cited ;  and  till  words  produce  that  charm,  they  avail  nothing:  even  real  events 
entitled  to  our  belief,  must  be  conceived  present  and  passing  in  our  sight,  before 
they  can  move  us.  And  this  theory  serves  to  explain  several  phenomena  other- 
wise unaccountable.  A  misfortune  happening  to  a  stranger,  makes  a  less  impres- 
sion than  one  happening  to  a  man  we  know,  even  where  we  are  no  way  interested 
in  him  ;  our  acquaintance  with  this  man,  however  slight,  aids  the  conception  of 
his  suffering  in  our  presence.  For  the  same  reason,  we  are  little  moved  by  any 
distant  event ;  because  we  have  more  difficulty  to  conceive  it  present,  than  an 
event  that  happened  in  our  neighborhood." 

(11)  An  Antithesis  (from  the  Greek  avri,  anti,  against, 
and  ridevai,  tithenai,  to  set)  is  a  form  of  expression  which 
impresses  an  idea  upon  the  mind  by  bringing  opposites 
into  one  conception;  as,  "Gold  cannot  make  a  man  happy , 
any  more  than  rags  can  make  him  miserable."  The 
proper  form  of  the  antithesis  is  the  balanced  sentence,  as 
in  the  example.  There  may  be  antithesis  of  thought, 
however,  without  the  balanced  sentence. 

The  following  from  Lord  Jeffrey's  description  of  the  steam  engine 
is  a  fine  example  of  antithesis  in  thought,  and  to  a  certain  extent, 
in  expression : 

"  It  has  become  a  thing,  stupendous  alike  for  its  force  and  its  flexibility ;  for 
the  prodigious  power  which  it  can  exert ;  and  the  ease,  precision  and  ductility 
with  which  it  can  be  varied,  distributed  and  applied.  The  trunk  of-an  elephant, 
that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend  an  oak,  is  as  nothing  to  it.  It  can  engrave  a  seal, 
and  crush  masses  of  obdurate  metal  before  it ;  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a 
thread  as  fine  as  a  gossamer  •,  and  lift  up  a  ship  of  war,  like  a  bauble  in  the  air. 
It  can  embroider  muslin,  and  forge  anchors  ;  cut  steel  into  ribands,  and  impel 
loaded  vessels  against  the  fury  of  the  winds  and  waves." 

(12)  Climax  (from  the  Greek  Kkifia^,  hlimax,  a  ladder) 
consists  of  such  an  arrangement  of  ideas  in  a  series  as  to 
secure  a  gradual  increase  of  impressiveness ;  as,  ^*  Since 
concord  was  lost,  friendship  was  lost ;  fidehty  was  lost ; 
liberty  was  lost ; — all  was  lost ! " 


90  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

The  following  impressive  climax  occurs  in  one  of  the  speeches 
of  Edmund  Burke  : 


"For  eighteen  months,  without  intermission,  this  destruction  raged  from  the 
gates  of  Madras  to  the  gates  of  Tanjore  ;  and  so  completely  did  these  masters  in 
their  art,  Hyder  Ali  and  his  ferocious  son,  absolve  themselves  of  their  impious 
vow,  that,  when  the  British  armies  traversed,  as  they  did,  the  Carnatic  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  in  all  directions,  through  the  whole  line  of  their  march,  they  did 
not  see  one  man,  not  one  woman,  not  one  child,  not  one  four-footed  beast  of  any 
description  whatever.   One  dead,  uniform  silence  reigned  over  the  whole  region." 


The  opposite  of  Climax  is  anti-climax.  In  this  form  of  expres- 
sion the  idea  becomes  less  and  less  impressive  ;  as,  "  The  enemy  is 
now  hovering  upon  our  borders,  preparing  to  press  the  knife  to  our 
throats,  to  devastate  our  fields,  to  quarter  themselves  in  our  houses, 
and  to  devour  our  poultry  ! " 


(13)  Epigram  (from  the  Greek  eni,  epi,  ypdcpsiv,  gra- 
pliein,  to  write)  at  first  meant  an  inscription  on  a  monu- 
ment. Hence  it  came  to  signify  any  pointed  expression. 
As  a  figure  of  speech,  it  now  means  a  statement  in  which 
there  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  the  sense  and 
the  form  of  words  ;  as,  "  Some  are  too  foolish  to  commit 
follies:' 

(14)  Interrogation  (from  the  Latin  interrogation  a  ques- 
tion) is  not  always  figurative.  It  is  a  figure  when  an 
affirmation  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  question;  as, 
"  Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right?  "  This 
question  is  intended  to  be  an  emphatic  declaration  that 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  will  do  right. 

(15)  Irony  (from  the  Greek  eipG)vsia,  eironeia,  dissimu- 
lation) is  a  form  of  expression  in  which  the  opposite  is 
substituted  for  what  is  intended,  with  the  design  that  its 
falsity  or  absurdity  may  be  evident;  as,  "Brutus  is  an 
honoraUe  man." 


STYLE.  91 

The  following  distinctions  are  worth  noting :  Ridicule  implies 
laughter  mingled  with  coutempt  ;  derision  is  ridicule  from  a  per- 
sonal feeling  of  hostility ;  mockery  is  insulting  derision  ;  satire  is 
witty  mockery  ;  irony  is  disguised  satire  ;  sarcasm  is  bitter  satire. 
These  distinctions  serve  to  point  out  the  chief  difEerences  between 
the  terms. 


5.  Rules  lor  Figures. 

As  considerable  skill  is  required  in  using  figurative  lan- 
guage correctly  and  effectively,  the  following  rules  should 
receive  careful  attention. 

(1)  Figures  should  always  add  either  clearness  op  im- 
ppessiveness  to  what  they  illustrate.  Hence  they  should 
not  be  founded  on  resemblances  either  too  obvious  or  too 
obscure. 

There  are  certain  trite  metaphors  which  add  nothing  to  ex- 
pression,  because  they  have  lost  by  continual  use  all  freshness  and 
force.  Thus  the  "  raven  tresses,"  "  ivory  brow,"  "  lily  hand,"  "  ruby 
lips,''  etc.,  of  cheap  novels,  have  no  rhetorical  value  ;  but  indicate 
an  uncultivated  taste. 

There  is  no  advantage  in  remote  resemblances,  borrowed  from 
some  special  art  or  science,  an  unfamiliar  historical  occurrence,  or  an 
obscure  mythological  story. 

(2)  Figures  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  character 
and  purpose  of  the  composition.  Poetical  figures,  such 
as  personification,  apostrophe,  and  vision  have  no  place  in 
sober  prose.  Similes  and  metaphors  should  be  in  keeping 
with  the  dignity  or  playfulness  of  the  style. 

Similes,  for  example,  being  founded  on  resemblance,  imply  a  cer. 
tain  coolness  in  using  them  ;  for  it  is  natural,  in  a  state  of  strong 
feeling,  to  overlook  resemblances.  Hence  similes  are  out  of  place  in 
the  midst  of  a  passionate  utterance,  as  when  Shakespeare  makes 
Rutland,  under  terror  of  instant  death,  say 


92  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC, 

"  So  looks  the  pent-up  lion  o'er  the  wretch 
That  trembles  under  his  devouiing  pains, 
And  so  he  walks  insulting  o'er  his  prey, 
And  so  he  comes  to  rend  his  limbs  asunder. 
Ah  1  gentle  CliflEbrd,  kill  me  with  thy  sword, 
And  not  with  such  a  cruel  threat'ning  look. 


Such  a  violent  hyperbole  as  the  following  is  out  of  placte  in  a 
mere  desciiptiou : 

*'  I  found  her  on  the  floor. 
In  all  the  storm  of  grief,  yet  beautiful ; 
Pouring  forth  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate, 
That,  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 
The  wrath  of  heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin." 


(3)  Figures  should  be  varied.  A  single  figure  carried 
too  far,  a  close  adherence  to  one  kind  of  figures,  or  a  re- 
sort to  one  class  of  objects  for  figurative  expressions,  are 
faults  which  are  common  among  inexperienced  writers. 

When  figures  are  carried  too  far,  they  are  said  to  be  strained. 
Much  practice  in  writing  is  required  before  we  learn  just  where  to 
leave  a  metaphor  or  a  simile  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader, 
Smollett,  in  his  "  History  of  England,"  says,  "  The  bill  underwent  a 
great  number  of  alterations  and  amendments,  which  were  not  effect- 
ed without  violent  contest  ;  at  length,  however,  it  was  floated 
through  both  Houses  of  Parliament  on  the  tide  of  a  great  majority, 
and  steered  into  a  safe  Imrbor  of  royal  approbation." 


(4)  Metaphors  should  never  be  incongruous.  Lord 
Castlereagh's  sentence,  *'And  now,  sir,  I  must  emharh 
into  the /<?«^wre  on  which  this  subject  liinges,"*^  combines 
three  metaphors  which  are  incompatible.  Such  metaphors 
are  said  to  be  "  mixed. ''^ 

This  kind  of  confusion  is  often  brought  about  by  using  in  the  same 
sentence  two  different  metaphors,  which  taken  separately  would  be 
unobjectionable ;  as, — 


STYLE.  93 

*'  Though  in  their  corrupt  notions  of  divine  worship,  they  are  apt 
to  multiply  their  gods,  yet  their  earthly  devotion  is  seldom  paid  to 
above  one  idol  at  a  time,  whose  oar  they  pull  with  less  murmuring 
and  more  skill  than  when  they  share  the  lading,  or  even  hold  the 
helm."  Here  the  demagogue  is  made  first  an  idol  and  then  a  loat, 
and  worshiping  and  rowing  are  confusingly  mixed. 

(5)  Metaphorical  expressions  should  not  be  blended 
with  plain  language.  This  fault  is  quite  as  great  as  that 
of  mixing  metaphors.  Dryden  exemplifies  this  kind  of 
confusion  in  the  following :  '^  I  was  sailing  in  a  vast  ocean, 
without  other  help  than  the  pole  star  of  the  ancients,  and 
the  rules  of  the  French  stage  among  the  moderns." 

Lord  Ellesmere  says  of  Sobieski,  "  He  flung  his  powerful  frame 
into  the  saddle,  and  his  great  soul  into  the  cause." 

In   this   section,   on   "Figures,"   we  have   consid- 
ered :— 

1.  The  Definition  of  Figures, 

2.  The  Origin  of  Figures, 

3.  The  Advantages  of  Figures. 

4.  The  Kinds  of  Figures. 

5.  Mules  for  Figures. 


SECTION   ¥♦ 

VARIATION    OF  EXPRESSION. 

1.   Importance  of  Variety. 

Next  to  a  clear  and  forcible  communication  of  thought, 
variety  of  expression  is  desirable.  It  not  only  displays 
wealth  of  artistic  resources   in    the   composer,  but  adds 


94  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

greatly  to  tlic  pleasure  of  the  reader  or  hearer.  We  soon 
grow  weary  of  one  thing.  As  Nature  has  provided  liber- 
ally for  our  enjoyment  by  her  boundless  variety,  so  Art 
should  strive  to  please  by  the  novelty  and  diversity  of  her 
products, 

"  If  we  would  keep  up  the  attention  of  the  reader  or  hearer,  if  we 
would  preserve  vivacity  and  strength  in  our  composition,"  says 
Blair,  "  we  must  be  very  attentive  to  vary  our  measures.  This  re- 
gards the  distribution  of  the  members,  as  well  as  the  cadence  of  the 
period.  Sentences  constructed  in  a  similar  manner,  with  the  pauses 
falling  at  equal  intervals,  should  never  follow  one  another.  Short 
sentences  should  be  intermixed  with  long  and  swelling  ones,  to 
render  discourse  sprightly  as  well  as  magnificent.  Even  discords, 
properly  introduced,  abrupt  sounds,  departures  from  regular  cadence, 
have  sometimes  a  good  effect.  Monotony  is  the  great  fault  into  which 
writers  are  apt  to  fall,  who  are  fond  of  harmonious  arrangement ; 
and  to  have  only  one  tune  or  measure,  is  not  much  better  than  hav- 
ing none  at  all.  A  very  vulgar  ear  will  enable  a  writer  to  catch  some 
one  melody,  and  to  form  the  run  of  his  sentences  according  to  it, 
which  soon  proves  disgusting.  But  a  j  ust  and  correct  ear  is  requisite 
for  varying  and  diversifying  the  melody,  and  hence  we  so  seldom 
meet  with  authors  who  are  remarkably  happy  in  this  respect." 


2.  Kinds  of  Variation. 

There  are  two  principal  ways  of  varying  expression :  (1) 
by  changing  the  Diction,  and  (2)  by  changing  the  Struc- 
ture of  a  sentence.  These  kinds  of  variation  will  be  fully 
illustrated. 

3.  Variation  of  Diction. 

The  following  are  the  methods  of  changing  the  Diction 
without  essential  alteration  in  the  sense. 

(1)  The  expression  may  be  varied  by  using  synonyms. 
Our  language,  composed  as  it  is  of  both  Saxon  and  Latin 


STYLE.  95 

elements,  affords  unusual  facility  for  this  kind  of  variation. 
Thus,  we  may  say,  "Our  relations  are  friendly;'^  or, 
"Our  relations  are  amicable.''  In  general,  Saxon  terms 
should  be  preferred,  as  being  stronger  and  more  familiar. 
Latin  derivatives,  however,  often  lend  more  harmony  and 
dignity  to  the  sentence. 

It  was  once  a  common  mode  of  expression  to  use  both  a  Saxon 
and  a  Latin  word,  so  as  to  give  perfect  clearness  to  the  thought. 
Thus  the  compilers  of  the  Liturgy,  being  anxious  to  reach  every 
understanding,  at  a  time  when  the  language  was  not  settled,  used 
such  couples  of  words  as,  "  acknowledge  and  confess,"  "  dissemble 
andcloke,  "  "  humble  and  lowly,"  "  goodness  and  mercy,"  "assemble 
and  meet  together."  Such  a  style  is  still  employed  by  many  who 
speak  to  mixed  audiences,  but  does  not  deserve  to  be  cultivated. 

(2)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  denying  the  con- 
trary of  a  proposition.  This  is  done  by  using  a  negative 
with  a  word  meaning  the  opposite  of  the  one  previously 
used  ;  as,  ^^It  is  difficult  to  write  anything  new;"  which, 
changed,  becomes,  "It  is  not  easy  to  write  anything  new." 

When  the  form  of  expression  is  rendered  more  mild,  as  it  often  is, 
it  is  called  a  Euphemism  ;  as  "  He  was  no  hero  ;  "  for,  he  was  a  coiu- 
ard."  This  is  considered  by  some  as  a  figure  of  speech.  It  diflfers 
very  little  from  Litotes. 

The  euphemistic  style  of  speaking  may  be  carried  to  a  ridiculous 
extreme. 

(3)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  circumlocution  (from 
the  Latin  circum,  around,  and  loqui,  to  speak).  By  this 
method  that  is  said  in  a  roundabout  way  which  might  be 
said  directly ;  as,  "  The  celestial  dome  ; "  for,  "  The  sky ; " 
"The  terrestrial  sphere  ;"  for,  "  The  earth."  This  mode 
of  variation  is  not  usually  conducive  to  energy. 


96  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHEIOBIG. 

The  cultivation  of  this  kind  of  variation  is  likely  to  lead  to 
an  inflated  verbosity.  White  amusingly  illustrates  the  fault  aa 
follows  :  "  'O,'  said  a  charming  and  highly  cultivated  woman,  speak- 
ing in  my  hearing  of  one  of  her  own  sex  of  inferior  breeding  and 
position,  but  who  was  making  literary  pretensions,  '  0,  save  me  from 
talking  with  that  woman !  If  you  ask  her  to  come  and  see  you, 
she  never  says  she's  *  sorry  aJie  carCt  come'  but  that  *  she  regrets 
that  the  multiplicity  of  her  engagements  precludes  her  from  accepting 
your  polite  invitation' " 

(4)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  recasting  the  sen- 
tence. This  mode  of  changing  the  form  of  statement  is 
often  the  only  one  which  will  preserve  the  original  mean- 
ing. Practice  alone  will  enable  the  learner  to  throw  a 
given  sentence  into  all  possible  forms.  The  following 
illustration  serves  to  exemplify  this  mode  of  variation. 

Theme  :  Man  is  mortal. 

1.  Man  is  not  to  live  forever. 

2.  Man  must  die. 

3.  Man's  mortality  is  certain. 

4.  The  grave  awaits  all  men. 

5.  Humanity  is  doomed  to  die. 

6.  Mortality  is  the  universal  decree. 
Vakiationb.  \     7.  Death  ends  every  career. 

8.  The  end  of  man  is  death. 

9.  The  death-penalty  has  been  passed  upon  all  men. 

10.  We  are  all  destined  to  fill  a  tomb. 

11.  The  narrow  house  is  the  final  guest-chamber  of 
all. 

12.  Death  sways  his  scepter  over  every  life. 

It  will  be  observed  that  some  of  these  sentences  are  better  than 
others.  Some  are  crude  and  common -pi  ace  ;  some  are  figurative  ; 
some  are  deficient  in  clearness.  This  difference  shows  why  it  is  that 
the  perfection  of  expression  requires  elaboration.  Many  of  the 
best  writers  compare  the  form  of  sentence  that  they  have  chosen 
with  every  other  admissible  form  before  they  finally  adopt  it.  Says 
the  poet  Cowper,  "  To  touch  and  retouch  is,  though  some  boast  of  neg- 


STYLE.  97 

ligence  and  others  would  be  ashamed  to  show  their  foul  copies,  the 
secret  of  almost  all  good  writing,  especially  in  verse.  .  .  .  What- 
ever faults  I  may  be  chargeable  with  as  a  poet,  I  cannot  accuse  my- 
self of  negligence.  /  never  suffer  a  line  to  pass  until  I  hate  made  it 
as  good  as  I  can. 

4.  Variation  of  Structure. 

The  following  are  the  modes  of  changing  the  structure 
of  a  sentence  without  destroying  its  meaning. 

(1)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  using  a  question  In- 
stead of  a  declaration.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
interrogative  form  not  only  asks  a  question,  but  that  it 
also  serves  to  express  an  emphatic  statement.  Additional 
force  is  given  by  using  the  interrogative  form.  Thus, 
"  Shall  we  do  evil  that  good  may  come?"  is  a  more  forci- 
ble sentence  than,  "  We  should  not  do  evil  that  good  may 
come." 

The  interrogative  form  is  not  always  mors  forcible  than  the 
declarative.  In  cases  where  the  question  starts  a  doubt,  or  where 
the  reader  or  hearer  cannot  instantly  give  a  mental  answer,  the 
question  is  a  weak  form  of  assertion,  even  if  it  be  understood  as  an 
assertion. 

(2)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  using  an  exclamation 
instead  of  a  declaration..  This  form  will  generally  imply 
some  emotion  on  the  part  of  the  composer.  This  will 
render  it  unsuitable  in  many  instances.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  exclamatory  form  is  preferable  to  the  declara- 
tive. Thus,  '*  How  sublime  is  the  midnight  sky ! "  is 
more  animated  than,  "The  midnight  sky  is  subhme." 

The  verb  is  often  omitted  In  exclamatory  sentences ;  as,  "  What 
noble  conduct  I  "  This  is  equivalent  to,  "  What  noble  conduct  this 
is  ! "  and  this  is  the  exclamatory  form  of  the  declaration,  "  This  con- 
duct is  noble." 


98  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BEETOBIG. 

(3)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  changing  the  voice 
of  a  verb.  The  active  may  be  substituted  for  the  passive, 
or  the  passive  for  the  active.  Thus:  Active,  "A  tax  on 
tea  provoked  the  American  colonists  to  violence."  Fas- 
sive,  *'  The  American  colonists  were  provoked  to  violence 
by  a  tax  on  tea." 

(4)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  using  '  there '  or  '  it.' 

Sometimes  the  effect  of  this  variation  is  to  weaken  the 
sentence  by  the  introduction  of  the  expletives.  Emphasis 
is  sometimes  gained  by  using  these  words,  as  the  logical 
subject  of  the  sentence  is  made  more  prominent  by  its 
unusual  position.  Thus,  "  There  are  two  tall  cliffs  on  the 
mountain,"*  is  more  forcible  and  more  idiomatic  than 
"  Two  tall  cliffs  are  on  the  mountain." 

(5)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  substituting  the  direct 
for  the  indirect  form  of  statement.  The  direct  form  gives 
the  exact  words  of  a  speaker;  as,  "  Socrates  said,  '  I  believe 
that  the  soul  is  immortal.'"  The  indirect  form  gives  the 
words  as  reported  by  another ;  as,  **  Socrates  said  that  he 
believed  the  soul  is  immortal.*' 

In  the  direct  form  the  exact  words  used  must  be  inclosed  In 
marks  of  quotation.  In  changing  from  the  direct  to  the  indirect 
form,  the  third  person  takes  the  place  of  the  first,  and  the  past  tense 
takes  the  place  of  the  present. 

(6)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  a  transposition  of 
parts.  The  customary  or  grammatical  order  in  a  sentence 
may  be  changed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  and  in  poetry 
the  utmost  freedom  is  allowed  for  the  sake  of  rhyme  and 
meter.     Oompai-e  the  following  examples: 


STYLE. 


Poetical  Order. 

While  stands     the    Coliseum, 
Rome  shall  stand. 

Few  and  short  were  the  prayers 
we  said. 

Lands  he  could  measure,  times 
and  tides  presage. 


Grammatical  Order. 

While    the    Coliseum   stands, 
Borne  shall  stand. 

The  prayers  we  said  were  few 
and  short. 

He  could  measure  lands  [and] 
presage  times  and  tides. 


The  translation  of  poetical  into  ordinary  prosaic  language  is  called 
Metaphrase.     If  properly  done,  it  is  a  very  valuable  exercise. 

(7)  Expression  may  be  varied  by  abridging  clauses  into 
phrases  or  words.  This  process  is  of  great  value  in  show- 
ing how  complex  sentences  are  but  expansions  of  simple 
sentences.  Clauses  are  (1)  Adverbial  Clauses,  which  are 
equivalent  to  an  adverb;  (2)  Adjective  clauses,  which  are 
equivalent  to  an  adjective;  (3)  Substantive  Clauses,  which 
are  equivalent  to  a  noun.  The  following  substitutions 
illustrate  the  principal  methods  of  variation  by  this  plan. 

1.  When  profits  are  small  =  Profits  leing  small. 

2.  When  the  war  has  ceased  =  The  war  having  ceased. 

3.  yls  Twos  hopeful  =  Ileing  hopeful. 

4.  Before  he  departed  =  before  his  departure. 

5.  If  this  is  true  =  This  being  true. 

6.  He  bought  it  that  he  might  use  it  =  He  bought  it 
to  use. 

1.  A  hope  that  muM  not  be  blighted  =  A  hope  not  to  be 
blighted. 

2.  A  horse  which  is  valuable  =  A  valuable  horse. 

3.  The  house  ichere  the  river  turns  =  The  house  situ- 
ated at  the  turn  of  the  river. 

4.  The  age  when  Luther  died  =  The  age  of  Luther.^ 

5.  The  states  that  rebelled  —  The  rebellious  states.* 

6.  He  gives  the  reason  why  he  does  not  work  =  He 
gives  the  reason  of  his  not  working. 


Adverbial 
Clauses. 


Adjective 
Clauses. 


*  These  last  expressions  are  less  precise  than  those  first  given. 


100 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  MHETOIUG. 


Substantive 
Clauses. 


Plato's  desire  was  that  he  might  make  the  world 

tetter  =  Plato's  desire  was  to  make  the  world 

better. 
That  he  hopes  much  is  encouraging  =  His  hoping 

much  is  encouraging. 
We  know  thM  the  stars  are  suns  =  We  know 

the  stars  to  be  suns. 
I  recommend  that  you  study  Shakespeare  =  I 

recommend  you  to  study  Shakespeare. 
He  knew  thM  we  had  gone  —  He  knew  of  our 

hamng  gone. 


Ill  this  section,  on  "Variation  of  Expression,"  we 
have  considered  :— 


1,  The  Importance  of  Variety, 

2,  Kinds  of  Variation, 

3,  The  Variation  of  Diction, 

4,  The  VaHatioti  of  /Structure* 


CHAPTHB    HI. 

PUNCTUATION    AND   CAPITALS. 

1.   The  Preparation  of  Manuscripts. 

In"  addition  to  the  composition  of  an  essay  according 
to  the  principles  of  invention  and  style  already  laid  down, 
it  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  manuscript  for  the  reader  or 
printer.  This  involves  Punctuation,  or  the  division  of  a 
composition  by  significant  marks  so  as  to  show  the  de- 
pendence of  its  parts ;  and  the  use  of  Capitals,  by  which 
words  and  sentences  are  distinguished. 

The  great  value  of  these  mechanical  aids  to  clearness  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  illustrations. 

A  blacksmitli  passing  a  barber's  window  observed  an  unpunc- 
tuated  placard,  which  he  read  as  if  pointed  thus  : 

"What  do  you  think? — 
I'll  shave  you  for  nothing, 
And  give  you  a  drink." 

Entering  the  shop,  he  had  his  heavy  beard  removed,  and  then 
coolly  demanded  the  liquor.  The  barber,  on  the  other  hand,  claimed 
payment,  and  when  the  blacksmith  referred  him  to  his  placard,  at 
once  went  to  it,  and  read  thus  : 

*■  What  !  do  you  think 
I'll  shave  you  for  nothing. 
And  give  you  a  drink?" 

An  English  statesman,  having  accused  an  oflBcial  of  dishonesty, 
was  required  to  make  a  public  retraction  of  the  charge.     He  read  his 


10^  ,.<  .    <  TSE '1:lement8  of  rhetoric. 

apology  thus:  "I  said  he  was  dishonest,  it  is  true  ;  and  I  am  sorry 
for  it."  To  the  surprise  of  those  who  had  accepted  it  as  satisfactory, 
it  appeared  thus  in  the  daily  papers  :  "  I  said  he  was  dishonest ;  it 
is  true,  and  I  am  sorry  for  it."  ' 

The  value  of  capitals  in  connection  with  points  and  spaces  is  seen 
from  the  three  forms  of  the  following  sentence  : 

HERELIESTHEG  RE  ATF  ALSEM  ARBLEWHERENOTHINGBU  T 
SORDIDDUSTLIESHERE. 

h^rdiestJugrmtfahemarUewherenothingMtsordiddustlieshere. 

'*  Here  lies  the  great." — False  marble !  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here. 


2.  The  Purpose  of  Punctuation. 

Punctuation  aims  chiefly  to  mark  the  grammatical  con- 
nection and  dependence  of  the  parts  of  a  composition.  It 
was  once  taught  that  points  were  mainly  intended  to  aid 
in  reading.  Their  use  in  elocution  is  now  generally  con- 
ceded to  he  merely  incidental.  They  show  the  grammati- 
cal sense  of  a  composition,  with  some  of  the  rhetorical 
force,  but  do  not  mark  the  actual  pauses  in  delivery. 

That  the  same  marks  do  not  exhibit  the  grammatical  depend- 
ence and  the  elocutionary  pauses,  is  evident  from  the  following 
example  Wilson,  in  his  **  Treatise  on  Punctuation,"  pointing  for 
the  printer,  punctuates  the  following  passage  thus : 

"  Men  of  superior  genius,  while  they  see  the  rest  of  mankind  painfully  strug- 
gling to  comprehend  obvious  truths,  glance  themselves  through  the  most  remote 
consequences,  like  lightning  through  a  path  that  cannot  be  traced.  They  see  the 
beauties  of  nature  with  light  and  warmth,  and  paint  them  forcibly  without  effort, 
as  the  morning  sun  does  the  scene  he  rises  upon  ;  and,  in  several  instances,  com- 
municate to  objects  a  mornmg  freshness  and  unaccountable  lustre  that  is  not 
seen  in  the  creations  of  nature.  The  poet,  the  statuary,  the  pamter,  have  pro- 
duced images  that  left  nature  far  behind." 

According  to  the  system  used  in  VandenhofiTs  "  Art  of  Elocution," 
the  same  passage,  marked  for  effective  and  appropriate  delivery, 
would  stand  tlius  : 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  103 

•'Men  of  superior  genius;  wliile  they  eee  the  rest  of  mankind,  paiiiMly 
struggling,  to  comprehend  obvious  truths  ;  glance,  themselves,  through  the  most 
remote  consequences  :  like  lightning,  through  a  path  that  cannot  be  traced ; 
they  see  the  beauties  of  nature,  with  light  and  warmth,  and  paint  them  forcibly, 
without  effort;  as  the  morning  sun,  does  the  scenes  he  rises  upon;  and,  in  gen- 
eral instances,  communicate  to  objects,  a  morning  freshness,  and  unaccountable 
lustre,  that  is  not  seen  m  the  creations  of  nature.  The  poet,  the  statuary,  the 
painter,  have  produced  images,  that  left  nature  far  behind." 


3.  Classification  of  the  Points. 

It  is  impossible  to  classify  with  exactness  the  various 
marks  used  in  punctuation,  but  the  following  division  will 
prove  convenient. 

(1)  Four  points  are  strictly  Grammatical,  being  used 
only  to  mark  grammatical  relations.     They  are 

1.  The  Comma,        [,] 

2.  The  Semicolon",  [;] 

3.  The  Colon,         [:] 

4.  The  Peeiod.        [.] 

(2)  Five  others  are  used  to  exhibit  the  rhetorical  force 
of  the  sentence,  and  may  be  called  the  Rhetorical  points. 
They  are 

1.  The  In^terrogation,  [?] 

2.  The  Exclamation,      [!] 

3.  The  Dash,  [— ] 

4.  The  Parenthesis,   [(  )] 
6.  The  Quotation-.      [''  "] 

(3)  Many  other  marks  are  used  to  indicate  various  facts, 
and  these  may  be  grouped  together  for  convenience  under 
the  head  of  Printers'  Marks. 

The  sections  of  this  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  these 
three  classes  of  marks,  the  rules  for  Capitals,  and  the  Cor- 
rection of  Proof  Sheets. 


J04:<..  .         THE '.ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

Most  of  the  points  mentioned  above  were  unknown  to  the  ancients. 
Some  of  them  were  introduced  in  tlie  tMrd  century  before  Christ,  by 
Aristophanes,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria.  They  did  not  come  into 
general  use,  however,  until  about  1500  A.  D.,  when  Aldus  Manutius, 
a  learned  and  tasteful  printer  of  Venice,  began  the  publication  of  the 
fine  editions  of  the  ancient  classics  which  bear  his  name. 

The  names  of  the  grammatical  points  were  borrowed  from  the 
kinds  and  parts  of  sentences  recognized  by  the  ancient  rhetoricians. 
Thus  the  Period  (from  the  Greek  irepiodog,  periodos,  the  way  around) 
signified  a  complete  circuit  of  words ;  that  is,  a  complete  sentence,  in- 
cluding subject,  copula  and  predicate.  The  Colon  (from  the  Greek 
KuTiov,  kolon,  a  member)  was  the  greatest  division  of  a  period.  The 
Semicolon  (formed  by  prefixing  the  Latin  8emi,  half,  to  the  word 
colon)  was  the  greatest  division  of  a  colon.  The  Comma  (from  the 
Greek  Kofifxa,  komma,  a  segment)  was  the  least  separate  part  of  a 
sentence  except  its  constituent  words  and  letters.  The  origin  of  these 
tdrms  shows  the  natural  use  of  the  points  named  from  them. 

Two  of  the  rhetorical  points  have  a  history.  The  mark  of  Interro- 
gation [?]  is  said  to  have  been  formed  from  the  first  and  last  letters  of 
the  Latin  word  Questio,  a  question,  written  one  above  the  other ;  thus, 
§.  The  [!]  Exclamation  is  said  to  have  been  formed  from  the  Latin 
word  lo,  joy,  written  vertically ;  thus  ^.  Most  of  the  other  marks  are 
arbitrary.  Those  having  any  known  origin  will  be  explained  in 
another  place. 

At  first  capitals  alone  were  employed,  and  they  were  run  together 
without  spaces  or  points,  as  in  the  illustration  given  above.  Most 
manuscripts  were  written  in  this  way  before  the  seventh  century, 
but  small  letters  came  into  use  about  that  time.  The  beautiful 
printed  page  of  to-day  is  the  product  of  many  centuries,  and  com- 
bines all  the  devices  of  human  ingenuity  to  please  the  eye  and  ex- 
press the  sense. 


SECTION    I. 

THE   GRAMMATICAL   POINTS. 

1.  Rules  for  the  Comma. 

The  Comma  [,]  is  used  to  mark  the  least  divisions  of 
a  sentence.    The  following  are  the  principal  rules. 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  105 

EuLE  1. — Parenthetical  Expressions. — Expressions  used 
parenthetically  should  be  inclosed  by  commas,  if  not 
otherwise  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence;  as, 
"  *  Honesty,'  as  the  proverb  rims,  *  is  the  best  policy.'  " 


Expressions  are  parenthetical,  when  they  intervene  between  the 
related  parts  of  a  sentence,  and  are  not  strictly  essential  to  its  mean- 
ing. An  expression  is  restrictive,  when  it  limits  some  particular 
word  to  some  special  sense.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  "The  Romans 
who  conquered  Greece  were  brave  men,"  the  italicized  words  may  be 
regarded  as  parenthetical  or  restrictive,  according  to  the  writer's 
meaning.  If  he  means  that  the  Romans  were  brave  men,  and  in- 
cidentally throws  in  the  statement  that  they  conquered  Greece,  the 
expression  is  parenthetical,  and  should  be  pointed  thus  :  "  The  Ro- 
mans, who  conquered  Greece,  were  brave  men."  If  the  reference  be 
to  the  particular  Romans  who  conquered  Greece,  the  expression  is 
restrictive,  and  should  either  contain  no  commas,  or  have  one  after 
"Greece"  to  mark  the  logical  subject. 

The  following  words  and  phrases  are  generally  parenthetical,  and 
should  be  set  off  by  commas  : 


accordingly, 

in  fact, 

perhaps, 

aB  it  happens, 

in  fine. 

surely. 

as  it  were, 

in  reality, 

then. 

consequently, 

in  short. 

therefore. 

finally, 

in  truth, 

too. 

however, 

moreover. 

to  be  brief, 

indeed. 

namely. 

to  be  sure, 

in  a  word, 

no  doubt. 

you  know. 

in  brief. 

of  course. 

Many  of  the  above  expressions  may  be  used  in  two  constructions, 
the  adverbial  and  the  conjunctional.  In  the  following,  "however" 
is  adverbial  :  "  However  wise  one  is  he  may  be  unfortunate."  In 
the  following  it  is  conjunctional :  "  He  was  wise,  however,  but  un- 
fortunate." An  adverbial  word  requires  no  commas,  A  conjunc- 
tional word  must  be  set  off. 

Words  not  parenthetical,  yet  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence, 
and  referring  to  it  as  a  whole,  should  be  set  ofE  by  a  comma  ;  as, 
"Why,  you  are  kind."  ''Yes,  I  think  so."  The  following  words 
used  in  this  way  should  be  thus  setoff: 


106  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 


again, 

further, 

weU. 

first, 

nay, 

why. 

secondly,  etc., 

no. 

yes. 

Parenthetical  expressions  are  sometimes  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  dashes,  marks  of  parenthesis  and  brackets.  The 
marks  of  parenthesis  are  much  less  used  than  formerly,  commas  or 
dashes  taking  their  place.  Parenthetical  insertions  are  marked,  ac- 
cording to  the  closeness  of  the  connection,  as  follows  : 


( )  [ ] 


The  commas  indicate  the  closest  connection ;  the  brackets,  the 
remotest. 

Rule  2.— Words  in  Apposition.— Words  used  in  apposi- 
tion are  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  "Shakespeare,  the  bard 
of  Avon,  was  born  in  1564." 

Words  are  in  apposition  when  used  as  explanatory  equivalents, 
as  in  the  example  given  above. 

Words  in  the  predicate,  referring  to  the  subject,  after  such 
verbs  as  is,  becomes,  is  called,  is  chosen,  is  considered,  should  not  be 
separated  from  the  subject  by  a  comma,  unless  separated  from  it  by 
a  parenthetical  expression.  The  following  is  right:  "Milton  has 
been  called  the  English  Homer." 

Brief  and  closely  connected  appositives  should  not  be  separated 
from  the  nouns  they  describe  :  as,  "  John  the  evangelist." 

Rule  3. — Relative  Clauses. — Relative  clauses,  if  not 
restrictive,  should  be  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  Bible, 
which  is  the  simplest,  is  tlie  profoundest  of  all  books." 

If  several  words  are  placed  between  the  relative  and  its  antece- 
dent, even  when  the  relative  is  restrictive,  the  relative  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  He  is  a  man  <Jf  much  experience,  who  has 
cross-examined  his  own  soul." 

So  also  it  should  be  preceded  by  a  comma,  when  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  an  expression  set  oflF  by  commas  ;  as,  "  The  soldier  who. 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  107 

from  true  patriotism,  offers  his  life  for  liis  country,  deserves  the  ad- 
miration of  his  fellows." 

A  relative  with  several  antecedents  should  be  preceded  by  a 
comma ;  as,  "  No  other  can  know  the  joys,  sorrows,  fears,  and  strug- 
gles, which  fill  another's  heart." 

Rule  4. — Words  in  a  Series. — In  a  series  of  words,  of 
the  same  part  of  speech,  and  in  the  same  construction,  a 
comma  should  be  placed  between  each  two ;  as,  "  Honor, 
wealth,  duty,  and  safety  are  the  leading  motives  of  men." 

When  the  conjunctions  are  expressed,  the  comma  should  be 
omitted  ;  as,  "  Let  us  freely  drink  in  the  soul  of  love  and  beauty 
and  wisdom  from  all  nature  and  art  and  history."  Some  would 
separate  all  these  words  by  a  comma  between  each  two,  but  such  is 
not  the  best  usage. 

When  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  last  two  words 
in  the  series,  a  comma  must  be  placed  after  the  last ;  as,  "  Let  us  try 
to  enrich,  purify,  ennoble,  our  minds." 

A  comma  should  not  be  placed  after  the  last  word  of  a  series 
when  followed  by  a  single  word ;  as,  "  Life  is  a  constant,  responsible, 
unavoidable  reality." 

Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  regarding  words  as  in  the  same 
grammatical  construction  because  they  happen  to  be  the  same  parts 
of  speech.  In  the  expression,  "A  swift  black  hawk,"  the  first  ad- 
jective qualifies  both  tlie  second  adjective  and  the  noun  taken  together, 
and  not  simply  the  noun.  It  would  be  wrong  to  write  the  expression 
"  A  swift,  black  hawk." 

Rule  5. — Continued  Sentences. — Each  simple  co-ordi- 
nate sentence  or  expression  in  a  continued  sentence,  should  .; 
be  followed  by  a  comma;  as,  "  Science  tunnels  mountains, 
spans  continents,  bridges  seas,  and  weighs  the  stars." 

If  the  co-ordinate  elements  of  a  sentence  are  complex,  they  must 
be  separated  by  semi-colons  ;  as,  "  Science,  by  the  help  of  explosives, 
tunnels  mountains  ;  by  the  power  of  steam,  spans  continents  ;  by  the 
aid  of  the  mariner's  compass,  bridges  seas  ;  and,  by  her  skill  in  cal- 
culation, weighs  the  stars." 


108  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOlilO. 

Rule  6.— Dependent  Clauses.  — Dopendont  clauses 
should  bo  set  off  by  commas  j  as,  "If  tho  soul  is  immortal, 
its  character  will  determine  its  destiny." 

A  dependont  clause  is  ouo  timt  nxiuircH  nnotbor  to  complete  hn 
raouiiiui^.  It  is gonomlly  introduced  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  if,  uuIchh, 
until,  etc.  HonuitlineH  tho  conjunction  iH omitted,  and  tlui  condition 
Implied  by  tlio  context;  us,  ''Were  I  C'wHiir,  I  would  not  bo  a 
tyrant."  When  u  clause  is  very  cloHoiy  connected  with  itH  princii)al 
clause,  or  introduced  by  that, — unless  removed  at  ttcoimidorable  diH- 
taiice  from  the  verb  or  pn^cedod  by  in  order— tho  comma  in  omltt(Kl ; 
as,  "  He  knew  that  it  was  wrong ;  "  but,  "  lie  used  every  available 
form  of  OHHistance,  that  he  might  succeed  ;"  and,  "  lie  reads,  in  order 
that  he  nniy  gain  knowledge." 

Rule  7. — Transposed  Parts. — A  part  transposed  from 
the  middle  or  oiul  U)  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  Hhoiild 
be  followed  by  a  comma;  as,  "To  govern  for  a  moment, 
he  betrays  a  sacred  trust." 

Rule  8.— Logical  Subject.— When  the  logical  subject 
of  a  sentence  ends  in  a  verb,  or  consists  of  parts  subdivided 
by  commas,  or  is  very  long,  the  subject  should  be  followed 
by  a  comma ;  as,  "Those  who  falter,  fail."  "A  life  of 
folly,  pleasure,  and  sin,  ends  in  ruin." 

RuLiJ  9.— Absolute  Constructions.— Clauses  in  the  ab- 

Holuto  construction  should  bo  separated  from  the  rest  of 
tho  sentence  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  doors  being  open,  I 
saw  far  into  tho  interior  of  tlie  house." 

Rule  10. —Words  in  Pairs.— Words  or  expressions  in 
pairs  should  have  a  comma  after  each  pair ;  as,  "  Hope 
and  despondency,  joy  and  sorrow,  pleasure  and  pain, 
diversifv  life*  with  their  sudden  e;)ntrasts." 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  109 

EuLB  11. — Ellipsis  of  a  Verb. — When,  in  ji  continued 
sentence,  a  common  verb  is  omitted,  its  place  is  marked 
by  a  comma ;  as,  **  Homer  was  tbo  greater  genius ;  Virgil, 
tlic  better  artist." 

Rule  12. — Words  in  the  Vocative. — Words  in  the  case 
of  address  should  bo  pointed  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
(on(;o ;  as,  *'  I  am  sure,  Henry,  that  you  are  right."  "  Sir, 
1  rise  to  ask  a  question." 

Rule  13. — Brief  Quotations. — A  brief  quotation,  or  a 
sentence  resembling  a  (piotation,  should  bo  introduced  by 
a  comma  ;  as,  "  The  first  words  of  the  Bible  are,  *  In  the 
beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth.'"  "  Ono 
of  the  first  lessons  of  a  judicious  education  is,  Leai'n  to 
think  and  to  discriminate." 

Rule  14.  — Numeral  Figures.— Numbers  expressed  in 
figures,  except  dates,  are  punctuated  according  to  the  deci- 
mal system,  which  requires  a  comma  before  every  group 
of  three  figures,  beginning  at  the  right;  as,  "The  Rocky 
Mountains  rise  12,600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  ; 
the  Andes,  21,440  feet." 

When  numerals  are  written  In  words,  no  conimns  are  used. 
Tlius,  thosontonco  pfivon  above  would  l)o  written  as  follows  ;  "  The 
Rocky  Mountains  riso  twolvo  thousand  five  huudri'd  foot  abovo  the 
lovol  of  tho  owan  ;  the  Andes,  twenty-one  thousand  four  hundred 
and  forty  feet." 

2.  RiilcH  for  tlio  Scmi-coloii. 

The  Semi-colon  [;]  is  used  to  mark  the  divisions  of  a 
sentence  next  greater  than  those  requiring  a  comma.  Tho 
following  are  the  principal  rules : 


110  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOMIC. 

Rule  1.— Short  Sentences  connected.— When  several 
connected  short  sentences,  without  grammatical  depend- 
ence, are  written  one  after  the  other,  they  should  be 
divided  by  semi-colons ;  as,  "  There  is  good  for  the  good ; 
there  is  virtue  for  the  virtuous ;  there  is  victory  for  the 
valiant ;  there  is  spirituality  for  the  spiritual." 

The  practice  of  writers  differs  in  the  cases  covered  by  the  rule. 
Some  insist  on  using  a  period  in  all  such  cases.  One  objection  is 
that  it  makes  the  page  seem  crowded  with  capitals.  When  there  is 
a  very  close  connection,  the  period  indicates  less  connection  than  th'i 
case  demands.  In  practice,  the  comma,  semi-colon,  colon,  or  period  is 
used,  according  to  the  closeness  of  the  connection. 

Rule  2. — Subdivided  Members. — Members  of  sentences 
subdivided  by  commas,  unless  very  closely  connected, 
should  be  separated  by  semi-colons;  as,  '* Prosperity  is 
naturally,  though  not  necessarily,  attached  to  virtue  and 
merit ;  adversity,  to  folly  and  vice." 

Rule  3.— Added  Clauses. — When  a  clause  stating  a 
reason,  inference,  or  explanation,  is  added  to  a  complete 
sentence,  if  introduced  by  a  connecting  word,  the  added 
clause  is  preceded  by  a  semi-colon;  as,  "Examinations 
are  formidable  even  to  the  best  prepared  ;  for  the  greatest 
fool  may  ask  more  questions  than  the  wisest  man  can 


When  the  connection  is  very  close,  a  comma  may  be  used. 

An  example,  introduced  to  illustrate,  when  thus  added,  is  pre- 
ceded by  as  with  a  semi-colon  before  it,  and  a  comma  after  it.  Ob- 
serve the  illustrative  examples  added  to  these  rules. 

Rule  4. — Particulars  in  Apposition. — A  general  term 
is  separated  from  the  particulars  under  it  by  a  semi-colon. 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  m 

and  these  from  each  other  by  commas ;  as,  '*  To  Greece 
we  are  indebted  for  the  three  principal  orders  of  architec- 
ture ;  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian." 


When  the  terms  in  apposition  are  formally  introduced  and  de- 
scribed, the  general  term  is  followed  by  a  colon  and  the  particulars 
are  separated  by  semi-colons  ;  as,  "  Grammar  consists  of  four  parts  : 
first,  Orthography ;  second,  Etymology  ;  third,  Syntax  ;  and  fourth. 
Prosody. 


Rule  5. — Common  Dependence. — Clauses  and  expres- 
sions in  a  series,  having  a  common  dependence  upon 
another  clause,  are  separated  from  the  common  clause  by 
a  comma  and  a  dash,  and  from  each  other  by  a  semi-colon  ; 
as,  "If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field  ;  of  wisdom  in  the 
cabinet ;  of  the  purest  patriotism  ;  of  the  highest  integ- 
rity, public  and  private;  of  morals  without  a  stain;  of 
religious  feelings  without  intolerance  and  without  extrava- 
gance,— the  august  figure  of  Washington  presents  itself  as 
the  personation  of  all  these  ideas." 

When  the  dependent  clauses  are  not  long,  or  not  very  numerous, 
the  dash  may  be  omitted. 

2.  Rules  for  the  Colon. 

The  Colon  [ :]  is  used  to  mark  the  divisions  of  a  sen- 
tence next  greater  than  those  requiring  a  semi-colon.  The 
rules  for  its  use  are  as  follows : 

Rule  1. — Subdivided  Members. — Members  of  sentences 
subdivided  by  semi-colons,  unless  numerous  and  complex, 
should  be  se|)arated  by  colons;  as,  "A  man  can  scarce 


112  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

allege  his  own  merits  with  modesty,  much  less  extol  them ; 
a  man  cannot  sometimes  brook  to  supplicate  or  beg  ;  and 
a  number  of  the  like :  but  all  these  things  are  graceful  in 
a  friend's  mouth,  which  are  blushing  in  his  own." 

EuLE  2. — Supplementary  Clauses. — A  supplementary 
clause,  introduced  without  a  conjunction,  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  colon  ;  as,  "  The  present  life  is  not  wholly  pro- 
saic, precise,  tame  and  finite:  to  the  gifted  eye,  it  abounds 
in  the  poetic." 

This  case  differs  from  that  under  Rule  3  for  the  Semi-colon,  in 
omitting  the  conjunction.  The  example  used  under  that  rule  might 
have  the  conjunction  either  expressed,  as  there  written,  or  omitted. 
If  omitted,  the  example  would  fall  under  this  rule.  The  serai-colon 
is  preferred,  however,  if  the  added  clause  depends  on  a  verb  in  the 
preceding. 

Whenever  expectation  is  raised  that  an  addition  will  follow,  the 
colon  is  used,  even  when  the  first  part  is  not  a  clause,  but  merely  a 
word.  The  adverbs  yea  or  no  are  thus  followed  by  a  colon  when  they 
are  equivalent  to  an  answer  that  is  afterward  expressed  in  full  in  re- 
ply to  a  question  ;  as,  "  Can  Rolla's  words  add  vigor  to  the  virtuous 
energies  which  inspire  your  heart  ?  No :  you  have  judged,  as  I  have, 
the  foulness  of  the  crafty  plea  by  which  these  bold  invaders  would 
delude  you." 

Rule  3.— Formal  Quotations. — A  direct  quotation,  form- 
ally introduced,  should  be  preceded  by  a  colon  ;  as,  A  great 
philosopher  makes  this  curious  remark :  "  It  is  possible 
that  some  creatures  may  think  half  an  hour  as  long  as  we 
do  a  thousand  years." 

When  the  quotation  is  long,  or  begins  a  new  paragraph,  the  colon 
may  be  followed  by  a  dash  ;  as,  "  The  speaker  made  the  following 
remarks  : — 

*  Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  the  present  occasion  is  one  of  great  public 
interest.' " 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  113 

Rule  4. — Title- Pages. — When  an  explanatory  title  fol- 
lows a  main  title  and  is  in  apposition  with  it,  not  being 
introduced  by  or,  the  two  are  separated  by  a  colon;  as, 
"  Esthetics :  the  Science  of  Beauty." 

If  or  is  used,  a  semi-colon  is  placed  after  the  main  title  and  a 
comma  after  or  ;  as,  "  JEstlieti(^  ;  or,  tlie  Science  of  Beauty." 

A  colon  is  also  commonly  used  after  the  place  of  publication  at 
the  foot  of  the  title  page  ;  as,  "  New  York :  Sheldon  &  Co." 

4.  Rules  for  the  Period. 

The  Period  [.]  indicates  a  full  stop.  The  rules  for  its 
use  are  as  follows  : 

EuLE  1. — Complete  Sentences. — Complete  sentences 
which  are  not  exclamatory  or  interrogative,  and  not  con- 
nected in  a  series,  should  be  closed  with  a  period ;  as,  "  In 
books,  be  it  remembered,  we  have  the  best  products  of  the 
best  minds.  We  should  any  of  us  esteem  it  a  great  priv- 
ilege to  pass  an  evening  with  Shakespeare  or  Bacon." 

Parts  of  very  long  and  complex  sentences  are  sometimes  separated 
by  a  period.  In  strictness,  sentences  beginning  with  for,  hut,  etc., 
belong  to  the  preceding  sentence ;  but  in  practice  are  often  printed 
and  pointed  as  separate  sentences. 

KuLE  2. — Abbreviations. — A  period  should  be  used  after 
every  abbreviated  word ;  as,  "  Kev.  C.  A.  Smith,  D.  D., 
LL.D." 

When  an  abbreviated  word  comes  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  only 
one  period  is  needed.  When  a  comma  or  semi-colon  is  used  after  the 
abbreviation,  however,  the  period  is  retained,  before  it. 

Some  proper  names  which  seem  to  be  abbreviations  are  not  really 
so  ;  as,  "  O  rare  Ben  Jonson."  So  also  such  names  as  Tom,  Bill,  Jim. 
Some  other  words  are  really  abbreviations,  but  have  obtained  a  stand- 


114  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

ing  in  the  language  as  complete  words ;  as,  consols,  from  consolidats ; 
cab,  from  cabriolet. 

When  letters  are  doubled,  as  in  MM.  for  Messrs ,  LL.  for  legum, 
pp.  for  pages,  no  period  is  put  between  them.  ITius  LL.D.  (Legum 
Doctor)  should  not  be  written  L.  L.  D. 

When  Roman  numerals  are  used,  a  period  is  usually  placed  after 
the  completed  expression  ;  as,  Psalms  iii.,  iv,,  v.,  and  vi. 

Rule  3. — Title-Pages  and  Headings.— A  period  is  used 
on  a  title-page  (1)  after  the  name  and  description  of  the 
book;  (2)  after  the  author's  name  with  his  titles;  (3) 
after  the  pubh'sher's  imprint.  It  is  used  also  after  every 
heading  and  subhead,  and  after  signatures.  Thus :  "  An 
Outline  of  the  Necessary  Laws  of  Thought:  a  Treatise  on 
Pure  and  Applied  Logic.  By  William  Thompson,  D.D., 
Provost  of  the  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  New  York  : 
Sheldon  and  Company."  See  the  headings  and  subheads 
in  this  work. 


SECTIOIT    11. 
THE   RHETORICAL   POINTS. 

1.  Rules  for  the  Interrogation  Point. 

The  Mark  of  Interrogation  [?]  is  used  to  ask  or  suggest 
a  question.    The  following  are  fche  principal  rules : 

Rule  1. — Direct  Questions. — Every  question  admitting 
of  an  answer,  even  when  it  is  not  expected,  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  mark  of  interrogation ;  as,  "  Who  does  not  know 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  115 

how  feeble  and  hollow  British  poetry  had  become  in  the 
eighteenth  century  ?  " 

When  several  questions  have  a  common  dependence,  they  should 
be  followed  by  one  mark  of  interrogation  at  the  end  of  the  series  ;  as, 
"  Whither  now  are  fled  those  dreams  of  greatness  ;  those  busy,  bust- 
ling days  ;  those  gay -spent,  festive  nights  ;  those  veering  thoughts, 
lost  between  good  and  ill,  that  shared  thy  life  ? "  But  when  the 
questions  are  distinct  and  separate,  each  should  be  followed  by  an 
interrogation  mark  ;  as,  "  What  is  civilization  ?  Where  is  it  ?  What 
does  it  consist  in  ?  By  what  is  it  excluded  V  Where  does  it  com- 
mence? Where  does  it  end?  By  what  sign  is  it  known?  How  is 
it  defined?" 

EuLE  2.  —Doubt. — The  mark  of  interrogation  is  some- 
times parenthetically  inserted  to  suggest  doubt ;  as,  "In 
1794  (?)  France  became  a  republic." 


2.  Rules  for  the  Exelamation  Point. 

The  Exclamation  Point  [!]  is  used  to  indicate  some 
kind  of  emotion.     The  following  are  the  chief  rules. 

Rule  1. — With  Interjections. — The  exclamation  point 
is  used  with  interjections  and  words  or  clauses  used  like 
interjections;  as,  "Alas!  my  doom  is  sealed."  "What 
noble  institutions!  what  a  comprehensive  policy!  what 
wise  equalization  of  every  political  advantage ! " 

The  difference  between  the  interjections  0  and  oh  is  often  over- 
looked. The  former  is  used  with  a  noun  in  direct  address ;  as,  "  This, 
O  men  of  Athens  !  my  duty  prompted  me  to  represent  to  you."  The 
latter  is  not  commonly  thus  used  in  direct  address,  0  is  not  prop- 
erly followed  by  the  exclamation  mark  placed  immediately  after  it, 
but  oh  is  so  followed,  unless  the  emotion  runs  through  what  follows: 
as,  "  Oh  !  I  could  be  bound  in  a  nutshell,  and  count  myself  a  king  of 
infinite  space,  were  it  not  that  I  have  had  bad  dreams."    But  when 


116  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

the  strong  feeling  runs  through  the  sentence,  the  mark  is  reserved 
for  the  end ;  as,  "  Oh,  how  seldom  has  a  pang  shot  through  our  hearts 
at  the  sight  of  of  our  ruined  fellow-creatures  ! " 

KuLE  2.— Strong  Emotion. — The  exclamation  point  is 
used  after  an  expression  of  strong  emotion ;  as,  "  Charge, 
Chester,  charge !  on,  Stanley,  on !  " 

The  tendency  of  young  writers  is  to  use  this  point  to  excess. 
Many  fancy  that  a  lavish  use  of  the  signs  of  emotion  lends  animation 
to  the  style.  The  result  is  far  different,  for  the  insipidity  is  the  more 
evident  by  contrast  with  what  the  marks  suggest. 

Very  intense  emotion  is  sometimes  expressed  by  repeating  the 
mark  ;  as,  "  Believe  him  ! !    I  would  rather  credit  Satan  !  ! " 

The  exclamation  point  is  often  used  to  imply  doubt  or  indicate 
dissent.     Sarcastic  expressions  are  often  thus  marked. 


3.  Rules  for  the  Dash. 

The  Dash  [ — ]  is  used  to  mark  some  kind  of  a  break 
or  iuterruption. 

No  other  mark  is  so  misunderstood  and  so  misused  as  the  dash. 
Many  writers  use  it  as  a  substitute  for  almost  every  other  point. 
This  careless  habit  implies  ignorance  of  the  proper  mode  of  pointing  ; 
though  it  may  be,  in  some  cases,  the  result  of  a  nervous  tendency  to 
use  the  pen  aimlessly,  when  it  is  not  employed  in  its  normal  work 
of  writing  down  the  words  of  a  composition.  Great  caution  is  neces- 
sary to  avoid  the  over-use  of  this  important  mark. 

Rule  1. — Abrupt  Changes. — A  dash  is  used  to  mark  a 
sudden  change  in  the  construction  or  the  sentiment ;  as, 
'*  The  heroes  of  the  Revolution — how  do  we  regard  their 
memory  ?  "     "  Her  soul  was  noble — in  her  own  opinion." 

Rule  2. — Rhetorical  Pauses. — A  dash  is  used  to  mark 
a  rhetorical  pause  or  a  suspension  of  the  voice  for  effect ; 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  117 

as,  "  Men  will  wrangle  for  religion,  write  for  it,  fight  for 
it,  anything  but — live  for  it." 

EuLE  3. — Rhetorical  Repetition. — When  a  word  or  ex- 
pression is  repeated  for  rhetorical  effect,  a  dash  is  used  to 
introduce  the  repetition;  as,  "Newton  was  a  Christian; 
— Newton !  whose  mind  burst  forth  from  the  fetters  cast 
by  nature  on  our  finite  conceptions; — Newton!  whose 
science  was  truth,  and  the  foundation  of  whose  knowledge 
of  it  was  philosophy. " 


This  form  of  expression  is  called  by  elocutionists  the  echo. 

The  dash  is  often  used  even  when  the  thought  is  repeated  instead 
of  the  exact  words  ;  as,  "  Our  own  nature  is  the  first  and  nearest  of 
all  realities, — the  corner-stone  of  the  entire  fabric  of  truth." 

Other  marks  are  used  with  the  dash,  as  in  the  examples  above  ; 
but  these  are  omitted  when  the  connection  is  close. 


Rule  4. — ^The  Parenthetical  Dash. — Parenthetical  ex- 
pressions, when  closely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  and  yet  less  closely  than  would  be  indicated  by 
commas,  are  inclosed  in  dashes  ;  as,  "  There  are  times — 
they  only  can  understand  who  have  known  them — when 
passion  is  dumb,  and  purest  love  maintains  her  own 
dominion." 


It  requires  considerable  judgment  to  decide  when  to  use  dashes, 
commas,  marks  ot  parenthesis,  or  the  other  points  mentioned  under 
Rule  1  for  the  Comma.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down  on  the 
subject. 

When  marks  of  parenthesis  have  been  used  to  inclose  an  expres- 
sion which  itself  contains  a  parenthesis,  dashes  should  be  used  to 
mark  the  included  parenthesis ;  thus, — 


118  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

•'  Sir  Smug,"  he  cried,  (for  lowest  at  the  board- 
Just  made  fifth  chaplain  of  his  patron  lord : 
His  shoulders  witnessing,  by  many  a  shrug. 
How  much  his  feelings  suffered— sat  Sir  Smug,) 
"  Your  office  is  to  winnow  false  from  true  : 
Come,  prophet,  drink,  and  tell  us  what  think  you." 


EuLE  5. — Omissions. — A  dash  is  used  to  note  the  omis- 
sions of  letters  or  figures  ;  as, — 

J n  B n for  John  Brown. 

1877-8 "  1877,1878. 

Luke  14:  a-6 "  Luke  14 :  3, 4,  5,  6. 

An  ellipsis  of  the  words  namely,  thai  is,  etc.,  is  generally  marked 
by  a  dash  ;  as,  "  The  essence  of  all  poety  may  be  said  to  consist  in 
three  things, — invention,  exprefssion,  inspiration." 

EuLE  6. — Dependent  Expressions. — ^A  series  of  expres- 
sions, depending  upon  a  subsequent  part  of  a  sentence, 
should  be  followed  by  a  dash  at  the  end  of  the  series ;  as, 
"  The  collision  of  mind  with  mind ;  the  tug  and  strain 
of  intellectual  wrestling ;  the  tension  of  every  mental  fibre, 
as  the  student  reaches  forth  to  take  hold  of  the  topmost 
pinnacle  of  thought, — these  make  men." 

EuLE  7. — Headings  and  Authorities.— A  dash  should 
be  inserted  between  a  title  run  in  the  line  and  the  subject- 
matter,  as  in  this  rule ;  and  also  between  the  citation  and 
the  authority  for  it ;  as, — 

No  character  is  perfect  among  nations,  more  than  among  men." — 
Edward  Everett. 

When  the  name  of  the  author  is  not  in  the  same  para- 
graph, but  on  a  line  by  itself,  no  dash  is  needed,  as — 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  119 

*'  No  character  is  perfect  among  nations,  more  than  among  men; 
but  it  miist  be  conceded,  that,  of  all  the  states  of  Europe,  England  has 
been,  from  an  early  period,  the  most  favored  abode  of  liberty  ;  the 
only  part  of  Europe,  where,  for  any  length  of  time,  constitutional 
liberty  can  be  said  to  have  a  stable  existence." 

Edward  Everett. 

When,  to  save  space,  questions  and  answers  are  put  in  the  same 
paragraph,  they  should  be  separated  by  dashes  ;  as,  Are  you  atten- 
tive to  this  matter? — Yes,  sir. — ^Do  you  enjoy  your  labor  upon  it?— I 
do. 

4.  Kule  for  the  Parenthesis, 

Marks  of  Parenthesis  [( )]  are  used  to  separate  expres- 
sions inserted  iu  the  body  of  a  sentence,  but  having  no 
essential  connection  with  it. 

The  word  parenthesis  (from  the  Greek  TraptvOeait,-,  parenthesis, 
insertion)  means  properly  t7Le  part  inserted.  Tbe  same  word  is 
used  to  signify  the  marhs  which  inclose  the  inserted  expression.  It, 
is  thought  more  precise  to  call  the  curved  lines  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis, in  order  to  avoid  confusion.  But,  as  the  words  Comma,  Colon, 
etc.,  signify  both  the  part  pointed  off  and  the  point  itself,  either  way 
of  speaking  is  justified  by  analogy. 

Rule. — Expressions  which  break  the  unity  of  a  sen- 
tence should  be  inclosed  by  marks  of  parenthesis ;  as, 
"The  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  tanght 
explicitly  (at  least  as  explicitly  as  could  be  expected  of  an 
ancient  philosopher)  by  Socrates. '' 

When  no  other  mark  would  be  required  if  there  were  no  paren- 
thesis, none  should  be  used  with  the  mark  of  parenthesis.  But  if 
other  marks  would  be  used,  they  should  precede  or  follow  the  marks 
of  parenthesis,  according  to  the  character  of  the  parenthetical  ex- 
pression. When  the  words  in  parenthesis  have  a  point  of  their  own 
after  them,  the  point  which  would  be  used  if  there  were  no  paren- 
thesis is  placed  hefore  the  parenthesis,  and  the  point  belonging  to 


120  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

the  parenthesis  is  placed  before  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis  ;  as, 
"  While  the  Christian  desires  the  approbation  of  his  fellow-men,  (and 
why  should  he  not  desire  it  ?)  he  disdains  to  receive  their  good-will 
by  dishonorable  means."  When  any  point  is  necessary  at  the  place 
where  the  parenthesis  is  thrown  in,  and  no  point  is  required  in  the 
parenthesis,  the  point  should  come  after  the  parenthesis ;  as,  '*  Pride 
in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud  man  himself), 
is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action  among  men. " 

In  the  reports  of  speches ,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  (1)  to  in- 
close remarks  of  approval  or  disapproval  by  the  audience,  and  (2)  to 
inclose  the  name  of  the  persons  indicated  by  gestures  or  otherwise; 
as,  "  I  wish  to  ask  the  gentleman  from  Ohio  (Mr.  Thurman)  a  ques- 
tion which  he  may  not  wish  to  answer  in  this  place  (hear,  hear)." 

Marks  of  parenthesis  are  also  used  to  enclose  numerals  introduced 
for  the  sake  of  a  clear  enumeration,  as  in  the  above  paragraph. 
Queries  and  doubts  are  also  interpolated  in  the  midst  of  a  sentence 
in  a  similar  manner  ;  as,  "  In  1814  (?)  Napoleon  called  himself  King 
(eicf)  of  the  Frenc?i."  Here  the  interrogation  after  1814  suggests  a 
doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the  date,  and  "  sic"  (the  Latin  for  thus), 
followed  by  the  question  mark,  suggests  the  query  whether  the  title 
was  "  Ki7ig  "  or  something  else,  as  Emperor. 


5.  Rules  for  the  Quotation. 

The  Marks  of  Quotation  ["  "]  are  used  to  show  that 
the  words  inclosed  by  them  are  borrowed. 

Punctuation  and  morality  come  into  contact  here,  and  the  laws  of 
both  very  nearly  coincide  at  this  point.  To  omit  the  marks  of  quo- 
tation is  plagiarism,  and  plagiarism  is  a  crime.  In  a  composition 
which  is  prepared  for  public  delivery  mere  marks  on  the  manuscript 
are  not  sufficient.  Distinct  acknowledgment  should  be  made  in 
words.  Long  quotations  are  objectionable,  because  they  imply  a 
want  of  originality.  If  brief  and  appropriate,  quotations  add  to  the 
richness  and  interest  of  a  composition. 

*•  Rule  1. — Direct  Quotations.— A  direct  quotation  should 
be  inclosed  by  quotation  marks;  as.  When  Plato  heard 
that  his  enemies  called  him  a  bad  man,  he  said:  ''I 
shall  take  care  so  to  live  that  no  one  will  believe  them." 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  VZl 

A  direct  quotation  is  one  in  which  the  exact  language  is  reported. 
When  the  form  of  expression  is  slightly  altered,  only  one  inverted 
comma  and  apostrophe  are  used ;  as,  *  I  shall  try  to  live  so  that  no 
one  will  believe  my  calumniators.'  When  we  make  no  pretension 
to  use  the  exact  language,  but  give  merely  the  substance  in  our 
words,  the  marks  of  quotation  are  unnecessary  ;  as.  It  was  Plato's  de- 
sire to  live  down  the  misrepresentations  of  his  enemies. 

EuLE  2. — Quoted  Quotations. — When  a  quotation  is 
embraced  within  another,  the  contained  quotation  has 
only  single  marks ;  as,  Trench  says,  "  What  a  lesson  the 
word  'dihgence'  contains." 

When  the  internal  quotation  comes  at  the  end,  three  apostrophes 
are  added  with  a  space  between  the  first  and  the  last  two  ;  as, 
"  Channing,  the  friend  of  humanity  in  every  condition  and  under 
every  garb,  suys  :  '  When  I  consider  the  greater  simplicity  of  their 
lives,  and  their  greater  openness  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  I  am 
not  sure  but  that  the  "  golden  age  "  of  manners  is  to  begin  among 
those  who  are  now  despaired  of  for  their  want  of  refinement.'  "  The 
pointing  of  a  quotation  within  a  quoted  quotation  is  also  shown  in 
the  above  example. 

When  a  number  of  consecutive  paragraphs  are  quoted,  each  para- 
graph is  commenced  with  inverted  commas  ;  but  only  the  last  takes 
the  apostrophes. 


SECTION    in. 

PRINTERS'  MARKS. 


The  most  important  marks  which  have  not  been  already  men- 
tioned are  here  grouped  together,  for  convenience,  in  alphabetical 
order.  This  section  may  be  learned,  or  used  for  reference,  as  the 
teacher  may  prefer. 

1.  Accents — Three  marks  called  Accents,  are  used  to  mark  the 
stress  of  voice  on  vowels.     The  Acute  [']  denotes  a  rising  tone  of 


122  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

voice,  or  somtimes  a  simple  stress  ;  the  Grave  [^]  a  falling  tone,  or 
that  the  final  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed,  as  in  French  words  and 
words  ending  in  ed,  is  sounded  ;  the  Circumflex  [a]  that  the  vowel 
over  which  it  is  placed  is  sounded  with  both  a  rising  and  a  falling 
tone,  as  the  prolonged  oh  uttered  in  sarcasm. 

2.  The  Apostrophe. — The  apostrophe  [' ]  is  used  (1)  to  mark  the 
possessive  case,  and  (3)  to  denote  an  omission;  as,  "  Night's  sable 
mantle  fell."  "I've  made  a  time  o'  it."  Plurals  and  words  con- 
taining many  sibilants  take  the  apostrophe  without  any  8,  to  form 
the  possessive;  as,  "The  Ages'  voice  speaks  everlasting  truth." 
"Moses'  ceremonial  law."     "  Conscience'  sake." 

3.  Braces. — These  are  used  to  show  that  a  number  of  individuals 
are  taken  together  as  referring  to  something  common  ;  as, 

r  Orthography, 

^  .     1   ^      j  Etymology, 

Grammar  mcludesj  g^^^^^^ 

I  Prosody. 

4.  Brackets. — When  a  parenthetical  insertion  is  too  little  con- 
nected with  the  text  for  inclusion  in  marks  of  parenthesis.  Brackets 
[  ]  are  used.  Such  cases  are :  (1)  when  a  figured  pronunciation  is 
given,  as  in  dictionaries ;  (2)  when  explanatory  or  omitted  words 
are  interpolated. 

5.  The  Caret  [y\]  is  used  in  manuscripts,  to  mark  the  accidental 
omission  of  a  word  or  letter,  which  has  afterwards  been  placed  over 
the  line :  as, — 


A         A 

6.  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  somewhat  like  a  comma  placed  under  the 
letter  c,  when  it  has  the  sound  of  8  before  a  or  o,  in  words  borrowed 
from  the  French  ;  as,,  facade  [fasade^ 

7.  Dieresis. — A  Dieresis  [  ••  ]  is  a  mark,  formed  of  two  dots,  placed 
over  the  second  of  two  successive  vowels,  to  show  that  they  are 
pronounced  separately  ;  as,  cooperation.  A  hyphen  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  same  purpose  ;  as,  co-operation. 

8.  Ellipsis.— Marks  of  Ellipsis  [*  *  *  *, , ^]  are 

used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters,  words,  sentences,  and  para- 
graphs. 

9.  Emphasis. — Marks  of  Emphasis  call  special  attention  to  some 
statement.    They  are  (1)  the  Index  [|^],  and  (3)  the  Asterism  [^\.] 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  123 

10.  The  Hyphen.— This  mark  [-]  is  used  (1)  to  connect  the  parts 
of  a  compound  word  ;  as,  text-hook  :  (2)  to  separate  the  syllables  of 
a  word  when  spelled;  as,  rev-e-la-tion :  (3)  to  connect  the  parts  of 
words  which  are  broken  at  the  end  of  a  line  and  carried  over  to  the 
next. 

11.  Italics  are  letters  inclined  to  the  right.  They  owe  their  name 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  first  used  by  the  Italian  printers.  They 
are  used  (1)  to  mark  an  emphatic  word  ;  and  (2)  in  the  English  Bible, 
to  show  that  the  words  printed  with  them  are  not  in  the  original. 

■  In  writing.  Italics  are  indicated  by  drawing  one  line  under  the 
word  to  be  italicized. 

Tlie  excessive  use  of  Italics  disfigures  the  printed  page,  and  indi- 
cates bad  taste  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Judiciously  used,  how- 
ever, they  are  of  great  value. 

12.  Leaders  are  dots,  used  in  tables  of  contents,  to  lead  the  eye 
along  a  line,  for  the  completion  of  the  sense  ;  as, — 

PAGE 

Probability 55 

Verisimilitude 56 

Ideal  Presence 58 

13.  Leads  are  thin  pieces  of  type-metal  by  which  lines  are  spaced. 
When  these  are  used  matter  is  called  leaded  ;  when  not  used,  solid. 

14.  Paragraphs  \\\  are  inserted  in  a  manuscript,  to  indicate  that 
a  new  line  should  be  taken  for  the  matter  following  it. 

15.  Quantity-marks. — There  are  three  marks  which  serve  to  indi- 
cate the  quantity  of  a  vowel :  the  Macron  [-],  as  in  tiny ;  the  Breve 
[-'],  as  in  hop;  and  the  Double  [^1,  as  in  shone.  These  indicate, 
respectively  a  long,  short,  or  common  quantity. 

16.  Reference-marks  are  used  to  refer  to  notes,  or  specially 
designate  words.  They  are  (1)  the  Asterisk  [*],  (2)  the  Obelisk,  or 
Dagger  [f],  (3)  the  Double  Dagger  [X\  (4)  the  Section  [§],  (5)  Paral- 
lel lines  [|],  and  (6)  the  Paragraph  [^].  When  a  greater  number  are 
required,  these  marks  are  either  doubled,  or  letters  and  numbers  are 
employed. 

17.  The  Section  [§]  is  also  used  to  indicate  a  subdivision  of  a 
chapter.  It  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  words,  Signum 
seetionis,  sign  of  a  section ;  the  two  old-fashioned  long  //  being 
written  side  by  side,  but  finally  one  below  the  other. 

18.  The  Tilde  [S^]  is  a  character  written  above  the  letter  n  in 
Spanish  words,  to  show  that  the  letter  should  be  sounded  as  if 
spelled  with  y  ;  as  senor,  sir. 


124  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

19.  Types  have  names  to  distinguisli  their  shape  and  size.  As 
regards  shape,  they  are  ordinary  Roman,  small  capitals,  ROMAN 
CAPITALS,  Italics,  ITALIC  CAPITALS. 

©lb  (gnglisl),  or  JSlack  iD^tt^r, 
®erman  Z^rL 
Full-Face. 
Antique. 

Old  Style  and  Gothic. 

As  regards  size  they  are  as  follows  : 

Pica, — Composition  is  the  metliod  of  arranging 
Small  Pica, — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  t 
Long  Primer. — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging 
Bourgeois. — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  types  in  the 
Brevier. — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  types  in  the  pro 
Minion. — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  types  in  the  proper 
iVonparei/,— Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  types  in  the  proper  form  fo 
Agate. — Composition  is  the  method  of  arranging  types  in  the  proper  form  for  use. 
iVar^— CoHPOsmoM  is  the  method  of  arraDgin;  types  in  the  proper  form  for  use. 


SEGTION    lY* 

CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Capital  Letters  are  used  for  the  sake  of  giving  distinc- 
tion to  certain  words,  so  that  the  sense  may  be  more  ob- 
vious. The  most  important  rules  for  their  use  are  stated 
below. 

In  manuscripts,  capitals  are  indicated  by  drawing  lines  under  the 
written  words ;  two  lines  for  small  capitals,  and  three  lines  for 
CAPITALS. 

The  excessive  use  of  capitals  is  similar  to  the  abuse  of  Italics. 
Some  great  writers,  as  Thomas  Carlyle,  have  given  the  weight  of 
their  usage  to  this  practice,  but  even  they  cannot  redeem  it  from  the 
suspicion  of  affectation.     In  the  German  language  every  noun  be. 


PUNGTtJATION  AJVD    CAPITALS.  125 

gins  with  a  capital.  Sucli  writers  as  Carlyle  probably  borrowed 
their  practice  from  German  literature.  Capitals  are  of  advantage 
only  when  used  so  sparingly  as  to  contrast  with  small  letters. 

Rule  1. — First  Words. — A  capital  should  be  used  to 
begin  the  first  word  of  (1)  every  sentence,  (2)  every 
direct  quotation^  (3)  every  direct  question^  and  (4)  every 
line  of  poetry ;  as, — 

(1)  "  The  Anglo-Saxon,  the  subtraction  of  our  modem  English,  is  emphatically 
monosyllabic.  The  English  Bible  abounds  in  grand,  sublime,  and  tender  passages 
couched  almost  entirely  in  words  of  one  syllable." 

(2)  Dr.  Johnson  once  said  :  "  My  children  clear  your  minds  of  cant." 

(3)  Let  me  ask  you  this  question  :  Why  do  you  study  ? 

(4)  "Adieu!  adieu  I  my  native  shore 
Fades  o'er  the  water  blue, 
The  night-winds  sigh,  the  breakers  roar, 
And  shrieks  the  wild  sea-mew." 

The  word  capital  (from  the  Latin  caput,  head)  seems  to  suggest 
the  use  pointed  out  in  the  above  rule,  as  capitals  are  the  head 
letters  of  sentences. 


KuLE  2. — Headings. — Headings  of  essays  and  chapters 
should  be  wholly  in  capitals  :  as,  CHAPTER  III. — 
PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS. 

Rule  3. — Quoted  Titles. — When  titles  of  books  or  essays 
are  quoted,  every  noun,  adjective,  pronoun,  verb  and  ad- 
verb, should  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  White's  ''Words 
and  Their  Uses."  Locke's  "Essay  on  the  Human  Under- 
standing." 

Rule  4.— Names  of  the  Deity. — Names  and  titles  of 
God  and  Christ  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as.  Heavenly 
Father,  Creator,  Jehovah,  Lord,  Saviour,  Son  of  God, 
Almighty. 

When  Providence  is  used  to  mean  the  One  who  provides  for  us, 
it  begins  with  a  capital ;  otherwise  not. 


126  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

When  a  name  of  the  Deity  is  applied  to  a  created  being,  it  does 
not  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Lord  of  lords  and  King  of  kings." 
"  The  Lord  is  a  great  God  above  all  gods." 

There  is  much  diversity  of  practice  in  regard  to  pronouns  referring^ 
to  God.  Some  insist  on  using  Thou,  Thine,  Thee ;  He,  His,  Him ; 
Who,  Whose,  Whom.  In  the  best  editions  of  the  English  Bible, 
the  pronouns  are  not  printed  thus,  but  with  small  letters.  Wilson 
says,  "  Pronouns  referring  to  God  and  Christ  should  not  be0n  with 
capitals,  unless  they  are  used  emphatically  without  a  noun." 

KuLE  5. — The  Bible. — Expressions  used  to  designate 
the  Bible  or  any  particular  division  of  it,  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  The  Sacred  Writings,  the  Holy  Bible, 
God's  Word,  the  Old  Testament,  the  Gospel  of  John,  the 
Psalms,  etc. 

The  names  of  other  sacred  books  also  are  capitalized ;  as,  the 
Vedas,  the  Koran,  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  Eddas. 

Rule  6. — Proper  Names. — Proper  names  begin  with 
a  capital ;  as,  Caesar,  Apollo,  Germany,  the  Atlantic, 
Christmas. 

The  words  river,  sea,  mountain,  etc.,  when  used  generally,  are 
not  proper  nouns  ;  but  when  used  with  an  adjective  or  adjunct  to 
specify  a  particular  object,  they  are  proper  names  ;  as,  the  Hudson 
River,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  words  North,  South,  East,  and  West,  are  proper  names  when 
they  denote  certain  regions  of  the  country  ;  as,  "  The  North  and 
the  South  are  now  at  peace."  But  they  are  not  proper  names  when 
they  denote  mere  geographical  position  or  direction  ;  as,  "  Chicago  is 
west  of  New  York." 

The  word  Devil,  when  applied  to  Satan,  begrins  with  a  capital ;  as. 
"  The  Devil  is  the  father  of  lies."  If  used  generally,  it  begins  with 
a  small  letter^-  as,  "  The  devils  also  believe  and  tremble." 

When  a  proper  name  is  compounded  with  another  word,  the  part 
which  is  not  a  proper  name  begins  with  a  capital  if  it  precedes,  but 
with  a  small  letter  if  it  follows,  the  hyphen  ;  as,  Post-Homeric,  Ante- 
Christian,  Sunday  school. 


PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALS.  127 

Rule  7. — Derivatives  from  Proper  Names. — Words 
derived  from  proper  names  generally  begin  with  a  capital ; 
as,  American,  Roman,  Christian,  Mohammedan  ;  Ameri- 
canize, Romanize,  Christianize,  Judaize. 

Some  words  have  so  completely  lost  their  connection  with  their 
primitives,  that  they  are  printed  without  capitals  ;  as,  damask,  from 
Damascus;  philippic,  from  Philip  ;  dmony,  from  Simon. 

The  names  of  political  parties,  religious  sects,  and  schools  of 
thought  begin  with  a  capital,  even  when  not  derivatives  from  proper 
names  ;  as,  Whigs,  Tories,  Republicans,  Kadicals;  Jews,  Protestants, 
Catholics,  Calvinists,  Methodists,  Baptists ;  Nominalists,  Realists, 
Idealists,  Associationalists,  Spiritualists. 

Names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  and  names  of  the  months  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  Thursday,  from  Thor  ;  July,  from  Julius;  Au- 
gust, from  Augustus. 

Rule  8.— Titles  of  Office  and  Honor— Titles  of  office 
aad  honor  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  The  President 
of  the  United  States,  His  Excellency  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  Alderman  Smith, 
Sir  Francis  Bacon. 

When  titles  like  the  above  are  used  frequently,  and  not  in  con- 
nection with  a  proper  name,'  small  letters  are  used  ;  as  "  They  spoke 
sadly  of  the  king's  illness."  But  when  used  with  the  proper  name, 
titles  should  always  begin  with  a  capital. 

When  used  in  a  specific  sense,  the  words  Academy,  College,  Consti- 
tution, State,  University,  etc.,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Har- 
vard University  is  an  old  institution."  When  used  generally,  these 
words  should  begin  with  a  small  letter;  as,  "Our  country  owes 
much  to  its  colleges  and  universities." 

Rule  9. — Personification. — In  vivid  personification,  the 
noun  personified  begins  with  a  capital ;  as, — 

"  With  quickened  step, 
Brown  Night  retires  ;  young  Day  comes  in  apace, 
And  opons  all  the  lawny  prospect  wide." 


128  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

Rule  10. — Terms  Defined. — Words  defined,  or  intro- 
duced  for  the  first  time,  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  The 
Comma  is  used  to  mark  the  least  divisions  of  a  sentence." 

Rule  11. — Numbered  Items. — ^Items  distinctly  num- 
bered should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  **  Reading  serves, 
1.  To  inform  the  mind;  2.  To  delight  the  imagination; 
and  3.  To  perfect  the  character." 

When  the  numbers  are  introduced  parenthetically,  capitals  are 
not  necessary,  nor  are  periods  necessary  after  the  numbers.  The 
tendency  is  to  drop  both  the  periods  and  the  capitals  in  the  body  of  the 
text,  and  to  reserve  the  uninclosed  numbers  for  the  beginning  of 
paragraphs  ;  or,  at  least,  of  sentences.  The  following  is  neater  than 
the  example  under  the  rule :  "  Reading  serves  (1)  to  inform  the 
mind,  (2)  to  delight  the  imagination,  and  (3)  to  perfect  the  character." 

Rule  12. — ^The   Pronoun   I  and  the  Interjection   0. — 

These  should  always  be  capitals. 

Rule  13. — Important  Words. — Any  words  or  expressions 
of  special  importance,  such  as  those  denoting  (1)  historical 
events,  (2)  unusual  phenomena,  and  (3)  epochs  of  time, 

should  begin  with  capitals;  as,  (1)  The  French  Revolu- 
tion ;  (2)  the  Aurora  Borealis ;  (3)  the  Augustan  Age. 

Rule  14. — Roman  Numerals. — Capitals  are  sometimes 
used  to  represent  numbers  ;  as,  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  Y.,  etc. 

Dates  on  title-pages  were  formerly  printed  in  this  way.  Refer- 
ences to  books  are  frequently  made  by  using  these  numbers ;  as, 
"  Whately's  Elements  of  Logic,  Book  IL,  Chap.  III.,  Sec.  V.,  p.  118.' 
Many  prefer,  however,  when  the  references  are  numerous,  to  us( 
small  letters  ;  as,  "  Whately's  Elements  of  Logic,  book  ii,  chap,  iii, 
sec.  V,  p.  118." 


COBBEGTION   OF  PB00F8.  129 

SECTION    Y* 
THE  CORRECTION   OF   PROOFS- 

This  Chapter  would  be  incomplete  without  a  few  directions  for 
the  correction  of  proof-sheets.  Almost  every  one,  at  some  time  in 
the  course  of  his  life,  will  have  occasion  to  contribute  something  to 
the  [)ress,  if  it  be  nothing  more  than  an  advertisement  or  an  article 
ill  the  local  newspaper.  However  trifling  the  item  may  be,  it  is  im- 
portant to  know  that  it  is  correct.  In  order  to  insure  accuracy,  two 
things  must  be  done  :  (1)  the  Copy  must  be  correctly  prepared  ;  and 
(2)  the  Proof  must  be  carefully  read.  A  few  suggestions  will  be 
given  on  these  two  points. 

1.   The  Preparation  of  Copy. 

In  preparing  the  copy,  the  following  rules  must  be  observed, 

(1)  Write  distinctly.  It  is  unfair  to  the  compositor  who  sets  up 
your  copy,  to  require  him  to  solve  enigmas  at  every  sentence. 

(2)  Write  on  only  one  side  of  the  paper.  The  liability  of  mistake 
is  lessened  by  leaving  one  side  blank,  so  that  the  opposite  characters 
cannot  be  confused. 

(8)  Make  your  own  paragraphs.  It  is  unreasonable  to  impose 
on  the  printer  a  task  which  you  find  too  difficult  for  yourself,  or 
which  you  are  too  indolent  to  perform. 

(4)  See  that  ail  the  words  are  correctly  spelled.  This  especially 
applies  to  all  technical  or  proper  names,  of  which  the  compositor  may 
reasonably  be  ignorant. 

(5)  Do  your  own  pointing.  Unless  you  use  the  points  as  you 
want  them,  the  printer  may  not  understand  your  meaning  and  so 
may  misrepresent  you. 

The  tribulations  of  a  compositor  who  puzzles  over  bad  copy  are 
amusingly  illustrated  in  the  following  newspaper  paragraph,  quoted 
by  Wilson  : 

"  The  late  Sharon  Turner,  author  of  the  '  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,'  who 
received  three  hundred  a  year  from  Government  as  a  literary  pension,  wrote  the 
third  vohime  of  his  'Sacred  History  of  the  World'  upon  paper  which  did  not 
cost  him  a  farthing.  The  copy  consisted  of  torn  and  angular  fragments  of  letters 
and  notes  ;  of  covers  of  periodicals,— gray,  drab  or  green,— written  in  thick, 
rotmd  hand  over  a  small  print ;  of  shreds  of  curling  paper,  unctuous  with  poma- 

6 


130  TEE.  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

turn  or  bear's  greaee  ;  and  of  the  white  wrappers  in  which  his  proofs  were  sent 
from  the  printers.  The  paper,  sometimes  as  thin  as  a  banlt  note,  was  written  on 
both  sides ;  and  was  eo  sodden  with  ink,  plastered  on  with  a  pen  worn  to  a 
stump,  that  hours  were  frequently  wasted  in  discoveriug  on  which  side  of  it  cer- 
tain sentences  were  written.  Men  condemned  to  work  on  it  saw  their  dinner 
vanishing  in  illimitable  perspective,  and  first  rate  Lands  groaned  over  it  a  whole 
day  for  ten  pence.  One  poor  fellow  assured  the  writer  of  this  paper,  that  lie 
could  not  earn  enough  upon  it  to  pay  his  rent,  and  that  he  had  seven  mouths  to 
fill  besides  his  own.  In  the  hope  of  mending  matters  in  some  degree,  slips  of 
stout  wliite  paper  were  sent  frequently  with  the  proofs ;  but  the  good  gentleman 
could  not  afEord  to  use  them,  and  they  never  came  back  as  copy." 


2.  The  Reading  of  Proof. 

Even  when  the  writer  has  observed  all  the  above  rules,  and  the 
printer  has  exercised  skill  and  taste  in  putting  the  copy  in  type,  there 
will  often  be  many  inaccuracies  and  inelegancies  in  the  printed  im- 
pression. This  impression  is  called  a  Proof.  Broad  margins  are 
left  for  corrections,  which  are  to  be  distinctly  noted  by  the  author. 
In  reading  the  proofs,  several  rules  should  be  observed. 

(1)  Criticise  the  matter  of  the  composition.  This  should  be 
done  as  carefully  as  possible  before  sending  the  copy  to  the  printer, 
but  many  things  will  be  evident  in  print  wliich  are  not  easily 
detected  in  manuscript. 

(2)  See  that  the  printer  has  made  no  alterations.  Sometimes 
mistakes  are  made  through  carelessness  or  ignorance  in  reading  the 
manuscript,  and  sometimes  the  compositor  thinks  he  knows  better 
than  the  author  what  ought  to  be  said. 

(8)  Observe  any  queries  marked  by  the  printer.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  printer  does  know  better  than  the  writer  how  to  spell 
a  word  or  punctuate  a  sentence.  He  then  ought  to  be  thanked  for 
any  query  which  suggests  a  change  to  the  author.  In  all  cases  tho 
suggestion  ought  either  to  be  accepted  and  the  change  made,  or  re- 
jected by  crossing  out  the  query,  so  as  not  to  leave  the  printer  in 
doubt. 

(4)  Use  the  accepted  signs  employed  by  printers  in  making 
corrections.  These  have  become  fixed,  so  that  all  intelligent  printers 
understand  them,  and  their  use  saves  much  time  and  trouble.  The 
principal  signs  of  this  kind  are  used  in  the  annexed  example  of  a 
corrected  proof-sheet. 

(5)  Make  your  corrections  in  the  margin  and  not  in  the  body  of 
the  page.  Care  is  necessary  to  do  this  so  accurately  and  neatly  that 
the  corrector  of  the  forms  will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding 
the  changes  to  be  made. 


COBBEGTION  OF  PB00F8  131 


The  Copy  sent  to  the  Printer. 


.<3     -(Qo'i^-e'U-j'j^. 


c^&     co-^dat     •/ad^e      aave     ieJe    ^a    </^e     (ao^eu-fn,         tPtOeie,    tnc/eea 


tvtc  acfnendeonJ  •tifele  neceJJaiu  /      j^al     ^nauaA  AanaieaJ    cou-ue 


ew/ei  a-/  once,  anc/  <^e/^u.  /Aouda?i(/ }^€^^nc/ Jea/j,  ^e  d/iace  to-aJ  dft/e 
t^idu/i!^<ceeri'/  j^ol  ^a?ne,  anc/  "/ne  cio^o^aC  /^oi  ^ne  ■?/ioln<n.a,  aafneJ 
■Uea.an   a%  ■^ntc/nfaA,^.  c/e^madtixn   anci  <:^'/eiJ,    aJ  </^ ^iedaatna,   ^Ae*i 


otan 


/ilectyw/ancy  'Uenena.  G^  ^ne  unAei.  iva/M  ^Aey  ^wue  tndel^ee/ 
{f/oned  to-ntcn  -nac/  evte/en.>t-<^  Veen  cAeMea  j^oi  a  c^^^elen¥^  /iu.i/iode, 
QTO'fne  of  vne  alcaaeJ  ale  a.ioJd/u  e^neaua-c;  no  -/nou-Mtna.  Aiedeivea 
^A.e  da^ne  ■^ve'C  ana  j/olfft  launc/  ^Ae  •tiino'^  C'^nde,  ana  evei'U  oloCei 
tJ  ■/u/i  oj^  -ucende,  c^/ne  ^Ooi.tc  Aad  no  ^Ug^i^^Ard  noi  'fnerone4i.  anas 
(^d  alcn  tJ  "/oo  ■u^'toi  <oi.  tVd  co^^nnd ;  ^ne  Q^nt'c  ie/tea^d  Me  en-^a^- 
-^^uie  o/i/^e  ^oU'c ;  <//&  '//Cclc/  oi(/el  *'j  'ifct^  a  ioMa4  cad-/  o^  -/^o 
^ouh^nean,  ant/ t'^d ^ouaa.e  </ne  ^nthde.)^  ^loa'^eirAMn^  ;  i^ne J^oul'/yt 
deetrzd  a  fneie  ie/ie^^ton  o/ '/^e  ^nHc/ <n  /it^d^eid ;  aneC  fAe  -uiAo^  <4 
ciow</e(/  -tfy  a  ^eauu  <Ji/</^tc,  ^^  .PlDa/i/K'-^  /oi  ^ne  T^oMet/^m,  -/ne 
d^aAe  neceddaiu  </&  an  a^n/tfyti^nea'^ie  Aad  ait^en  <«:  a  d^a'tUu'f^  of 
cond^iMc/^on  du//tc*en^  ^o  iedtd^  /<ied^  atu/  eai^nacca^d ,  ana  -uanf- 
n^, 


132  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

A  Specimen  of  Proof  with  Marks. 

1  The  Coliseum. 


{■U:i 


d.  ■cci/id   2  A  colossal  taste  gave  rise  to  the  Colise^um.    Here,  ^ 

3  indeett,  gigantic  dimensions  were  necessary;  for 


4  though  hundreds   could  enter  at  once,   andfifty 

O         5  thousan  d  find  seats,  the   space  was   still  insuf- 

6  ficient  for  Rome,  and  the  crowd  for  the  morning 

7  games  ,  .  ^^",  at  midnight.     Vespasian  and  Titus, 

8  as  if  presaging  their  own  d^'thT'  l^u^rried  the 
J          9  building,  and  J    left  several  marks  of  their  pre- 

10  cipitancy    behind.      In    the    upper^walls   they 

11  have  inserted  atones  which  had  evidently  been 
X 

12  dressed  for  a  different  purpose. 

Some  of  the  ^i? 

^o-m  13  arcades  are  grossly  unequal ;   no  moulding  pre- 

14  serves  the  same  level  and  form  round  th«  whole       ^t4^^, 

-£  ^     15  ellipse,  Ind  every  order  is  full  of  license.     The 

16  Doric  has  no  tnglyphs  nor  metopes,  and  its  arch 

A       17  is  (low\^too)  for  its  columns;    the  Ionic  repeats 

18  the  entablature  of  the  Doric^^the  third  order  is 

^    y    19  but  a  rough  cast  of  the  w)rinthian,  and  its  foli- 

20  age  the  thickest  waterplants :   the   fourth  seems        -  / 
A  / 

21  mere  repetition   of  the   third  in  pilasters ;    and 
A  V 

22  the  whole  is  crowned  by  a  heavy  Attic     Happily     Q      ^ 

^       23  for  the  Coliseum,  t^  shape  V      to  an  am- 

24  phitheatre  has  given  it  a  stability   of   ra^^struc-         ^ 
(l^€yC    25  tion  -euf&eicnt   to  resist  fires,  and   earthquakes, 
^       26  and  lightnings,  and  sieges. 

'n'e■c■e4d€^4.-^A■ 


I. 


^1 


CORRECTION  OF  PROOFS.  133 

Explanation  of  Proof-Marks. 

1.  Capitals  are  marked  by  drawing  three  lines  under  the  word, 
as  in  line  1. 

2.  Small  Capitals  are  marked  by  drawing  two  lines  under  the 
word,  as  in  line  2. 

A  Superfluous  Letter  has  a  line  drawn  through  it,  and  6 
(the  Latin  dele,  destroy)  is  put  in  the  margin. 

3.  An  Inverted  Letter  is  marked  as  in  line  3. 

4.  A  Space  is  inserted  as  in  line  4 

5.  A  Space  is  removed  as  in  line  5. 

6.  A  Line  is  indented  as  in  line  6. 

7.  A  Word  is  depressed  as  in  line  7. 

8.  A  Word  is  elevated  as  in  line  8. 

9.  A  Word  is  moved,  either  to  the  right  or  left,  as  in  line  9 ; 
only  the  mark  is  turned  so  that  the  angle  shows  the  direction  in 
which  the  word  is  to  be  moved. 

10.  AOuadrat  (a  piece  of  type  metal  used  to  space  the  letters) 
sometimes  appears.     Its  face  is  depressed  as  in  line  10. 

11.  A  Broken  Letter  is  marked  as  in  line  11. 

12.  No  Break  is  marked  as  in  line  12, 

A  Paragraph  is  marked  by  placing  Tf  in  the  margin. 

13.  Roman  Letters  are  marked  as  in  line  13. 

14.  Wrong  Font,  or  wrong  style  of  type,  is  marked  as  in  line  14. 

15.  Lower  Case  Errors  are  marked  as  in  line  15. 

16.  italic  Letters  are  marked  as  in  line  16. 

17.  Words  to  be  Transposed  are  marked  as  in  line  17. 

18.  A  Point  Left  Out  is  inserted  as  in  line  18. 

19.  A  Capital  Letter  is  inserted  as  in  line  19. 
.20.  A  Hyphen  Left  Out  is  inserted  as  in  line  20. 

21.  A  Letter  Left  Out  is  inserted  as  in  line  21. 

22.  Same  as  18.     See  also  line  26. 

23.  A  Word  or  Expression  Left  Out  is  inserted  as  in  line  23. 

24.  Letters  to  be  Transposed  are  marked  as  in  line  24. 

25.  Stet  is  the  Latin  for  "let  it  stand,  or  remain,"  and  is  used 
when  a  supposed  error  has  been  corrected,  but  afterwards  is  found 
not  to  be  an  error. 

26.  Quotation  Marks  are  inserted  as  in  line  26. 
Apostrophes  are  inserted  in  a  similar  manner. 


CHAPTEH   IV, 

CRITICISM. 

1.  Defiuition  of  Criticism. 

Criticism  (from  the  Greek  Kptveiv,  hrinein,  to  judge)  is 
the  art  of  judgiug  of  the  merits  and  defects  of  any  produc- 
tion. Literary  criticism  is  the  art  of  judging  of  the 
merits  and  defects  of  a  written  composition.  The  word 
"criticism"  means  also  the  act  of  criticising;  as,  "This 
book  invites  severe  criticism  ;  "  and  even  a  critical  writ- 
ing; as,  "Macaulay's  criticism  of  Milton."  The  word 
critique,  however,  is  better  suited  to  this  last  meaning. 

It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that  criticism  is  the  art  of  fault- 
finding. Its  true  function,  as  the  word  criticism  implies,  is  judicial. 
The  critic  is  a  j  udge.  Hence  partiality  of  any  kind  ought  not  to  influ- 
ence his  judgment.  He  is  to  point  out  excellences  as  well  as  defects, 
and,  balancing  all  to  decide  upon  the  value  of  the  production.  In 
this  he  will  necessarily  be  guided  by  his  own  principles  and  tastes  ; 
hence  it  is  important  that  these  should  be  correct  and  pure.  As 
criticism  is  thus  dependent  upon  personal  views  and  feelings,  it  can- 
not claim  scientific  certainty  for  its  results,  except  as  these  are 
founded  upon  universally  admitted  principles. 

a.  The  Value  of  Criticism. 

The  value  of  criticism  is  two-fold :  (1)  to  the  writer  in 
composing;  and  (2)  to  the  reader  in  enjoying  literary 
works. 


CEITIGISM.  135 

A  trained  writer  criticises  his  own  work  at  every  step  of 
its  progress,  and  modifies  his  plan  and  method  as  he  pro- 
ceeds. Many  excellencies,  no  doubt,  are  introduced  with- 
out conscious  intention,  but  many  even  of  these  are  owing 
to  a  critical  habit  of  thought,  which  is  the  result  of  pre- 
vious effort.  In  addition  to  this  habitual  criticism  a  more 
deliberate  and  scrutinizing  examination  of  a  composition 
is  of  great  value.  The  act  of  composing  is  frequently 
accompanied  with  a  glow  of  satisfaction  which  magnifies 
merits  and  conceals  defects.  Hence  the  eye  of  another, 
or  his  own  after  an  interval  of  time,  will  often  detect 
faults  which  are  not  apparent  to  the  composer  at  the  time 
of  writing. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  elaborate  compositions  require 
close  inspection,  to  discover  their  latent  beauties  and 
artistic  finish.  Hence  the  competent  critic  has  a  never 
failing  source  of  enjoyment  in  the  exercise  of  his  art. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  subject  our  literary  workmanship  to  the 
criticism  of  another,  even  though  he  be  no  more  competent  than  the 
writer  to  judge  of  literary  merit.  One's  own  subsequent  judgment 
also  is  generally  worth  waiting  for.  It  is  an  excellent  rule  never  to 
regard  a  composition  finished  until,  after  sufficient  time  has  elapsed 
to  allow  it  to  pass  out  of  the  writer's  mind,  it  is  deliberately  criticised 
and  retouched.  In  this  drier  light  of  after-thought  one's  ideas, 
plan,  diction,  and  figures  are  judged  according  to  their  own  merits 
and  not  with  the  partiality  of  authorsliii). 

3.  Kinds  of  Literary  Criticism. 

In  criticising  a  composition  we  may  make  any  one  of 
several  elements  the  prominent  object  of  attention.  (1) 
We  may  consider  only  the  truth  of  the  matter.  This  is 
called  Real  Criticism.    (2)  We  may  limit  our  examination 


136  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIC. 

to  the  validity  of  the  arguments.  This  is  called  Logical 
Criticism.  (2)  We  may  regard  only  the  language  used. 
This  is  called  Verbal  Criticism.  (4)  We  may  examine 
the  production  as  a  work  of  art,  designed  to  gratify  the 
taste.     This  is  called  Esthetic  Criticism. 


As  truth  must  be  discovered  by  special  acquaintance  with  each 
department  of  knowledge,  it  would  useless  to  attempt  any  statement 
of  the  principles  of  real  criticism.  Real  criticism  assumes  two  prin- 
cipal forms,  historical  criticism,  and  scientific  criticism.  The 
former  aims  to  decide  what  documents  of  antiquity  are  worthy  of 
credence  and  what  events  actually  occurred.  This  has  recently  be- 
come an  important  branch  of  investigation.  Scientific  criticism  aims 
to  separate  the  true  from  the  false  in  the  data  and  theories  of  science. 
Logical  criticism  is  based  on  certain  principles  called  laws  of  thought, 
and  is  properly  considered  in  the  study  of  Logic.  Verbal  criticism 
derives  its  authority  from  the  principles  of  Style  as  laid  down  in  the 
second  chapter  of  this  book.  The  learner  may  find  some  excellent 
examples  of  verbal  criticism  in  Blair's  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and 
Belles  Lottres,"  Lectures  xx.-xxiv.  ^Esthetic  criticism  is  founded 
upon  the  laws  of  .^thetics,  or  the  science  of  beauty  and  kindred 
emotions.  As  some  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  taste  is  desirable 
in  connection  with  criticism,  aesthetic  criticism  will  receive  special 
attention  in  the  following  pages. 


4.  Method  of  Treatment. 

There  are  two  elements  in  criticism,  (1)  the  absolute, 
and  (2)  the  relatiye. 

(1)  The  absolute  element  comprises  the  fixed  principles 
of  actual  fact,  the  laws  of  thought,  and  the  canons  of 
style.  These  cannot  be  violated  with  impunity  even  by 
genius. 

(2)  The  relative  element  comprises  the  conditions  of 
taste  which  relate  to  our  enjoyment  of  literary  works. 
These  are  not  the  same  for  all  times,  races  or  persons. 


CRITICISM.  137 

Having  already  considered  at  some  length  the  more  ele- 
mentary of  the  absolute  principles,  we  may  now  devote 
some  attention  to  the  relative  principles  of  criticism.  The 
critic  should  know  something  of  the  powers  used  in  aes- 
thetic criticism  and  the  various  forms  of  enjoyment  pro- 
duced by  works  of  literature.  In  the  following  sections, 
therefore,  we  shall  consider  (1)  the  faculties  of  criticism, 
or  Taste  ;  and  (2)  the  kinds  of  literary  enjoyment,  or  the 
Pleasures  of  Taste. 


SBGTIOIT    I. 

TASTE. 
1.  Definition  of  Taste. 


Taste  is  that  power  of  the  mind  which  enables  us  to 
feel  and  discern  the  merits  and  defects  of  any  production 
which  is  designed  to  please.  The  word  is  borrowed  from 
that  sense  of  the  tongue  by  which  we  distinguish  and 
enjoy  the  flavors  of  food  and  drink.  It  is  applied  meta- 
phorically to  an  analogous  faculty  of  the  mind.  Like  the 
bodily  sense  from  which  the  name  is  derived,  Taste  affords 
both  pleasure  and  pain,  but  of  a  more  refined  and  elevated  i 
character  than  that  of  the  physical  organ. 

Some  of  the  most  common  definitions  of  taste  may  be  appended. 

(1)  Blair  defines  taste,  "  The  power  of  receiving  pleasure  from  the 
beauties  of  nature  and  art."  This  seems  defective  for  two  reasons; 
(1)  Taste  is  as  much  offended  by  defects  as  it  is  gratified  by  excel- 
lences ;  (2)  taste  is  gratified  by  other  than  beautiful  objects. 

(2)  Alison  defines  it  '*  That  faculty  of  the  human  mind  by  which 
we  perceive  and  enjoy  what  is  beautiful  or  sublime  in  the  works  of 


138  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

nature  or  art."    To  this  definition  there  are,  substantially,  the 
objections  :  (1)  The  sensitiveness  to  defects  is  overlooked ;  and  (3) 
taste  seems  limited  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  sublime  and  the  beautiful. 

(3)  Coleridge  says :  "  Taste  is  the  intermediate  faculty  which  con- 
nects the  active  with  the  passive  powers  of  our  nature, — intellect 
with  the  senses, — and  its  appropriate  function  is  to  elevate  the 
images  of  the  latter,  while  it  realizes  the  ideas  of  the  former."  The 
objections  to  this  definition  are  :  (1)  It  is  questionable  whether  there 
can  be  an  intermediate  faculty  between  the  active  and  passive  powers ; 
and  (2)  this  faculty  is  made  out  to  be  both  active  and  passive.  Such 
a  faculty  would  be  needless,  for  it  would  be  nothing  more  than  the 
active  and  passive  powers  in  cooperation. 

(4)  Ruskin  says  :  "  Perfect  taste  is  the  faculty  of  receiving  the 
greatest  possible  pleasure  from  those  material  sources  which  are  at- 
tractive to  our  moral  nature  in  its  purity  and  perfection."  This  is 
not  strictly  a  definition  of  taste,  but  a  description  of  the  noblest  taste. 

The  definition  given  in  the  large  print  seems  to  avoid  these  diffi- 
culties. As  will  be  shown,  it  is  a  function  of  taste  to  fed  and  also  to 
discern.  As  a  "  power  "  may  be  active  or  passive,  the  definition  does 
not  assert  that  it  is  either.  We  shall  find  that  it  is  both.  The  defini- 
tion does  not  claim  that  taste  is  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind. 


2.  Analysis  of  Taste. 

Taste  is  not  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind  but  depends 
upon  the  cooperation  of  two  powers  :  (1)  sensibility,  and 
(2)  judgment.  In  an  exercise  of  taste,  sensibility  is  first 
and  judgment  second.  For  example,  a  beautiful  poem  is 
read  in  our  hearing.  We  first  feel  a  pleasurable  emotion ; 
we  then  refer  our  pleasure  to  such  a  class  and  to  such 
causes  as  judgment  may  decide  proper.  Or,  if  parts  of  the 
poem  are  of  unequal  merit,  we  distinguish  by  judgment 
between  the  various  emotions  and  their  supposed  causes 
as  found  in  the  several  parts. 

Philosophers  are  not  agreed  with  regard  to  the  nature  of 
taste. 

Some  make  it  a  distinct  faculty.    Hutcheson  thinks  that  it  is  in- 


CRITICI8M.  139 

dependent  of  every  other  faculty,  performing  for  itself  the  functions 
of  sensibility  and  judgment.  This  is  equivalent  to  assuming  that 
there  is  a  mind  within  the  mind.  Hume,  on  the  other  hand,  regards 
taste  as  a  mere  sensibility.    Ruskin  seems  also  to  hold  this  last  opinion. 

Some  subordinate  taste  to  some  one  faculty.  Thus  Burke  main- 
tains that  taste  is  a  function  of  perception  ;  and  Akenside,  that  it  is 
subsidiary  to  the  imagination. 

Others  consider  taste  as  consisting  wholly  in  cooperation  of  several 
powers.  Such  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  French  philosopher, 
Cousin,  when  he  says  :  "Three  faculties  enter  into  that  complex 
faculty  that  is  called  Taste, — imagination,  sentiment,  reason." 

There  is,  doubtless,  a  basis  of  truth  in  all  the  different  theories. 
If  any  one  will  test  himself  in  the  presence  of  some  beautiful  object, 
he  will  find  that  he  ^v^t  feels  that  the  object  is  beautiful,  and  after- 
ward tries  to  discern  why  it  is.  He  may  fail  in  his  effort  to  ascertain 
the  cause  of  his  pleasure,  but  he  has  a  tendency  to  analyze  the  object 
which  grows  with  the  cultivation  of  taste. 


3.  The  Qualities  of  Taste. 

As  taste  is  made  up  of  two  powers,  sensibility  and  judg- 
ment, it  has  two  qualities  corresponding  to  tliese  constitu- 
ents.    These  are  (1)  Delicacy,  and  (2)  Correctness. 

(1)  Delicacy  of  taste  implies  a  more  than  ordinary  sen- 
sitiveness of  mind,  as  delicacy  of  touch  implies  a  power  to 
discriminate  fine  distinctions. 

(2)  Correctness  of  taste  demands  accuracy  of  judgment 
according  to  the  principles  of  taste,  as  correctness  of 
opinion  requires  the  power  of  comparing  facts. 

Each  quality,  to  a  certain  extent,  involves  the  other,  and 
a  high  degree  of  both  is  frequently  united  in  the  same 
person. 

4.  Taste  Universal. 

Taste  is  possessed  by  all  men.  Children  at  a  very  early 
age  manifest  an  admiration  for  beautiful  objects.     The 


140  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

rudest  peasants  delight  in  colored  prints  and  painted  images, 
and  enjoy  ballads  and  tales  which  are  level  with  their  com- 
prehension. Even  the  lowest  savages  enjoy,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  natural  scenery,  and  are 
fond  of  decorating  their  persons  with  various  ornaments. 
They  admire  an  emotional  and  highly  dramatic  eloquence. 


6.  The  Variation  of  Taste. 

Although  taste  is  universal,  it  varies  greatly  both  in 
delicacy  and  correctness.  It  is  as  various  as  the  faces, 
languages  and  characters  of  men. 

(1)  It  varies  with  age.  Children  are  fond  of  bright 
colors,  quick  motions,  simple  melodies  and  wonderful 
stories.  As  they  advance  in  life  they  prefer  more  modest 
colors,  more  dignified  movements,  more  exquisite  har- 
monies and  more  probable  tales.  The  young  are  fond  of 
the  glowing  and  impassioned  in  oratory  and  the  romantic 
in  poetry.  The  aged  prefer  thoughtful  and  epigrammatic 
speech  and  didactic  poetry. 

(2)  It  varies  with  races.  The  Oriental  admires  only 
the  rich  and  ornate  ;  the  European,  the  chaste  and  refined. 
In  literature,  the  German  prefers  acuteness  of  thought 
and  exactness  of  expression  ;  the  French  man  j  delicate 
sentiment,  brevity  and  beauty  of  phraseology.  Similar 
differences  of  taste  are  exhibited  in  the  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture  of  different  nations. 

(3)  It  varies  with  epochs.  The  most  ancient  poems, 
as  the  Iliad,  were  full  of  martial  passion,  expressing  all 
the  features  of  the  heroic  age.  With  the  progress  of 
civilization,  order,  fitness,  proportion,  and  unity  became 


CBITIGI8M.  141 

prominent,  and  were  expressed  in  the  dramas,  lyrics,  and 
orations  of  the  classic  age.  With  the  introduction  of 
chivahy,  the  blended  sentiments  of  heroism,  love,  and 
religion  produced  a  romance  age.  In  like  manner  we 
may  distinguish  epochs  of  taste  in  every  art. 

6.  The  Standard  of  Taste. 

As  tastes  are  various,  some  maintain  that  there  is  no 
standard  of  taste,  and  adopt  the  ancient  proverb,  "De 
gustibus  non  est  disputandum,"  "  There  is  no  disputing 
about  tastes."  If  by  a  standard  be  meant  a  perfect  meas- 
ure, such  as  the  standard  weights  used  in  commerce,  there 
is  none  in  literature.  If  by  a  standard  be  meant  some- 
thing by  which  we  may  decide  what  is  excellent  and  what 
is  defective,  there  is  such  a  standard.  Milton's  "  Paradise 
Lost,"  for  example,  is  certainly  a  noble  epic.  What  is 
the  standard  by  which  it  maybe  judged?  Is  there  any 
absolute  ideal  in  the  mind  of  man  by  which  it  may  be 
exactly  measured  ?  Apparently  not,  for  it  is  not  univer- 
sally regarded  as  a  great  epic.  Some  find  no  satisfaction 
in  reading  it;  many  who  do  derive  pleasure  from  it, 
would  enjoy  something  else  much  more.  Nevertheless, 
the  concurrent  opinion  of  the  majority  of  educated  men 
declares  that  it  is  a  great  poem.  In  the  concurrent  opin- 
ion of  the  best  judges  we  find  the  only  standard  of  taste. 
This  standard  is  not  easily  or  immediately  apphcable  to  a 
work  of  literature,  and  yet  it  is  a  real  and  the  only  uni- 
versal measure  of  literary  excellence. 

Every  age  has  its  fashions  in  literature  as  well  as  in  dress  and 
manners.     The  writers  who  are  most  pleasing  to  their  generation  are 


142  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

forgotten  hy  tbe  next.  Tlie  history  of  literature  reveals  tlie  fact  that 
the  works  which  are  most  permanent  in  their  influence  and  are  re- 
garded as  classics  by  all  generations,  are  not  generally  the  most  pop- 
ular at  the  time  of  their  composition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most 
fashionable  productions  rarely  outlive  their  authors.  The  novel 
which  half  a  nation  discuss  to-day  is  scarcely  read  to-morrow.  Time 
is  an  important  element  in  deciding  the  merits  of  literary  work.  It 
is  the  verdict  of  all  ages  and  all  nations  that  the  ancient  classics  are 
noble  works  of  art.  Shakespeare  is  admired  in  every  country  and  in 
every  age  where  his  dramas  are  known.  Yet  the  latest  novel  or  the 
sensational  play  of  the  hour  attracts  more  attention  for  the  moment 
than  the  great  masters  of  the  past.  Time  alone  can  measure  all 
competitors  for  lasting  fame  by  the  standard  of  concurrent  opinion. 
This  standard  is  like  a  great  clock  which  does  not  faithfully  indi- 
cate the  passing  moments,  but  peals  out  the  hours  with  infallible 
precision. 

7.  The  Claim  of  this  Standard. 

The  claim  of  concurrent  opinion  to  the  dignity  of  a 
standard  rests  upon  the  fact  that  the  fundamental  element 
of  taste  is  sensibility,  and  this  is  personal.  Whatever  is 
personal  has  authority  only  as  it  becomes  universal  or,  at 
least,  general.  For  example,  if  any  one  should  assert  that 
salt  and  sugar  have  the  same  taste,  we  would  deny  his 
competency  to  judge  in  such  matters,  and  would  declare 
that  his  sense  was  abnormal.  As  each  person  must  say 
for  himself  whether  or  not  he  is  pleased,  that  must  be 
regarded  as  most  pleasing  which  pleases  most  persons.  To 
reject  this  principle,  is  to  affirm  that  each  one's  feeling  is 
his  only  standard;  which  is  the  same  as  to  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  any  universal  standard. 

This  deference  to  others  is  altogether  reasonable,  and  yet  there  is 
no  appeal  from  our  own  feelings  which  can  be  wholly  satisfactory. 
As  Professor  Torrey  says  :  "  We  cannot  reason  or  argue  about  what 
is  beautiful,  or  the  reverse.    We  pronounce  a  work  of  art  great  and 


CRITICISM.  143 

admirable  of  its  kind,  without  reference  to  the  views  or  opinions  of 
others ;  I  mean  in  a  purely  aesthetical  judgment.  Arguments  to 
prove  that  it  is  so,  or  that  it  is  not  so,  cannot  alter  our  judgment,  any 
more  than  if  it  were  purely  subjective,  as  in  the  pleasures  of  sense. 
We  may  assent  to  such  opinions  and  reasoning  through  modesty 
or  dilfidence, — but  our  judgment  in  fact  remains  unaltered.  We 
either  find  the  things  immediately  beautiful,  or  not  at  all." 


8.  The  Cultivation  of  Taste. 

As  taste  is  subject  to  modification,  it  may  be  improved 
or  degraded.  Men  differ  widely  by  nature.  Some  possess 
a  refined  sensibility  and  a  sound  judgment,  others  being 
almost  devoid  of  aesthetic  powers.  That  taste  is  suscepti- 
ble of  improvement  is  evident  from  the  rapid  development 
of  art  among  nations  like  the  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
mans, who,  a  few  centuries  ago,  were  barbarians.  That  it 
may  be  degraded  is  equally  clear  from  the  decline  of  Gre- 
cian art  after  the  Roman  conquest  of  Greece.  As  a  culti- 
vated taste  is  of  inestimable  value,  a  few  of  the  means  of 
improvement  may  be  mentioned  here. 

(1)  Taste  is  imppoved  by  a  judicious  exercise.  As 
the  eye  may  be  trained  to  keenness  of  sight,  or  the  ear  to 
the  enjoyment  of  the  most  exquisite  harmonies  of  sound, 
so  taste  may  be  refined  and  strengthened  by  attentive  use. 

(2)  The  exercise  of  taste  should  be  analytic.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  feel  the  pleasure  of  beauty  or  sublimity;  it  is 
equally  important  to  refer  the  pleasures  of  taste  to  their 
causes.  Hence  analysis  should  be  applied  to  such  pas- 
sages in  literature  as  are  found  to  be  pleasing,  in  order 
that  the  laws  of  art  may  be  discovered.  Often,  like  the 
fragrance  of  a  flower,  this  will  baffle  our  analysis,  but 
sometimes  it  will  reward  us. 


144  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

(3)  Taste  is  most  rapidly  improved  by  the  study  of 
masterpieces.  In  seeking  gold  we  naturally  work  the 
richest  mines.  The  most  celebrated  poems,  orations,  and 
dramas  should  be  read  with  close  criticism. 

(4)  It  is  useful  to  attempt  an  imitation  of  such  pro- 
ductions as  we  may  hope  to  equal.  This  will  soon  con- 
vince us  of  the  difficulty  of  the  highest  literary  art,  and 
will  especially  enhance  our  admiration  of  the  masters  whom 
we  would  emulate.  Servility  of  imitation  should  not  be 
encouraged,  nor  is  it  best  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  single 
style  of  writing. 


9.  Catholicity  of  Taste. 

A  person  is  said  to  have  a  catholic  taste  when  he  re- 
spects the  taste  of  others  instead  of  regarding  his  own 
preferences  as  an  infallible  standard.  Catholicity  of  taste 
is  opposed  to  narrowness,  bigotry  and  dogmatism.  As 
others  may  possess  finer  sensibilities  and  a  better  judg- 
ment than  we,  or  as  they  may  have  better  advantages  for 
improving  their  taste,  we  ought  not  to  condemn  as  faulty 
those  productions  of  literary  art  which  are  generally  ac- 
cepted as  excellent. 


Altliouwli  so  much  is  said  in  praise  ofHomer  and  Virgil,  Shakes- 
peare and  Milton,  it  is  doubtful  if  most  immature  minds  have  any 
real  appreciation  of  their  merits.  It  is  only  after  the  taste  has  been 
refined  and  the  obstacles  of  a  language  half  understood  have  been 
removed,  that  one  is  capable  of  enjoying  the  more  delicate  touches 
of  literary  genius.  Such  power  of  appreciation  is  worth  striving  for, 
and  a  failure  to  attain  it  is  not  so  much  an  indication  that  we  have 
outgrown  these  masterpieces  of  the  past,  as  that  we  have  personal 
acquisitions  to  make  in  the  future. 


CBITICISM  145 

In  this  section,  on  "  Taste,"  we  have  considered  :— 

1.  The  Definition  of  Taste, 

2.  The  Analysis  of  Taste. 

3.  Tfie  Qualities  of  Taste. 

4.  Taste  as  Universal. 

5.  The  Variation  of  Taste, 
O,  The  Standard  of  Taste. 

7.  The  Claim  of  this  Standard. 

8.  The  Cultivation  of  Taste, 

9.  The  Catholicity  of  Taste, 


SECTION    11. 

THE  PLEASURES  OF  TASTE. 

1.  Kinds  of  Esthetic  Pleasure. 

The  Pleasures  of  Taste,  or  aesthetic  pleasures,  are  va- 
riously defined  and  classified.  It  will  best  suit  our  pur- 
pose here  to  describe  and  illustrate  the  following  five 
sources  of  aesthetic  pleasure  in  literature :  (1)  the  Beauti- 
ful, (2)  the  Sublime,  (3)  the  Witty,  (4)  the  Humorous, 
and  (5)  the  Pathetic.  Their  philosophy  belongs  to 
Esthetics. 


Much  ingenuity  lias  been  displayed  in  speculations  about  the 
sesthetic  emotions.  A  few  of  tlie  principal  theories  may  be  men- 
tioned here  although  none  of  them  have  met  with  universal  accept- 
ance. 

As  the  discussion  has  centered  chiefly  upon  the  nature  of  Beauty, 
we  may  first  classify  the  theories  with  regard  to  it.  These  are  as 
follows : 

(1)  The  Subjective  theory  maintains  that  beauty  is  in  the  nature 
or  action  of  the  soul  itself.    As  Plotinus  says,  **  Never  could  eye 


146  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

that  liad  not  been  made  sunlike  have  seen  the  sun,  neither  can  soul 
that  has  not  become  beautiful  see  beauty."  Or,  as  Hume  says, 
*'  Beauty  is  no  quality  in  things  themselves  ;  it  exists  merely  in  the 
mind  which  contemplates  them,  and  each  mind  perceives  a  different 
beauty."  The  subjective  theory,  with  numerous  modifications,  is 
is  held  by  Plato,  Shaftesbury,  Schelling,  Coleridge,  lluskiu  and 
others. 

(3)  The  Objective  theory  regards  beauty  as  residing  in  the  qualities 
of  external  objects  which  produce  pleasing  emotions  within  the  soul. 
As  Baumgarten  expresses  it,  "  Beauty  cannot  exist  without  a  desire 
for  its  possession,  and  the  true  aim  of  beauty  consists  in  awakeninj? 
desire ;  the  highest  beauty  is  where  sense-known  perfection  is 
greatest, that  is,  in  nature."  Reid  observes  on  this  point,  ' '  To  say  that 
there  is  in  reality,  no  beauty  in  those  objects  in  which  all  men  see 
beauty,  is  to  attribute  to  man  fallacious  senses,"  Aristotle,  Hogarth, 
Addison,  Burke,  Voltaire,  and  Brown  maintain  that  beauty  is 
objective. 

(3)  The  Objecto-subjective  theory  is  a  compound  of  the  two  al- 
ready stated.  According  to  this  view,  there  is  in  the  mind  an  idea  of 
the  beautiful  which  is  awakened  by  the  presentation  of  external  ob- 
jects. Cousin  says,  *'  That  which  is  internal  in  man  can  alone  perceive 
the  internal  in  nature.  It  is  my  soul  that  feels  the  soul  of  the  uni- 
verse   God  is  the  foundation  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness  ; 

the  absolute,  who  is  reflected  wholly  in  all  his  manifestations,  or  in 
ordinary  language,  in  all  his  creation."  Reynolds,  Cousin,  Jouffroy, 
Winckelmann  and  others  hold  this  theory. 

(4)  The  Associational  theory  holds  that  beauty  is  neither  native 
in  external  objects  nor  in  the  mind,  but  consists  entirely  in  the  power 
of  certain  objects  to  recall  pleasing  emotions.  As  Lord  Jeffrey, 
says, "  Objects  are  beautiful  merely  because  they  possess  the  power  of 
recalling  or  reflecting  the  emotions  of  which  they  have  been  the 
accompaniments."    This  theory  was  advanced  by  Alison. 

We  may  now  state  briefly  two  of  the  most  ingenious  theories  with 
regard  to  the  relations  of  the  aesthetic  emotions  to  one  another. 

(1)  According  to  Hamilton,  a  thing  is  beautiful,  when  it  occupies 
both  the  imagination  and  the  understanding  in  a  free,  full  and  agree- 
able activity  ;  sublime,  when  the  imagination  and  the  understanding 
fail  to  represent  and  measure  it  ;  picturesque,  when  the  understand- 
ing fails  to  measure  it,  but  the  imagination  has  free  play  on  account 
of  the  variety  in  tlie  object. 

(2)  According  to  Day,  the  distinction  between  the  beautiful,  the 
sublime,  and  ludicrous,  is  dejiendent  \i\)on  the  relation  of  the  idea  ex- 


CRITICISM.  147 

pressed  to  its  form  of  expression,  as  follows  :  (1)  If  the  revealed  idea 
and  the  revealing  matter  be  in  perfect  equipoise  and  harmony,  we 
have  perfect  beauty  ;  (2)  if  the  revealed  idea  overbear  or  outspan 
the  revealing  matter,  we  have  the  sublime ;  (3)  if  the  revealing 
matter  preponderate  over  the  revealed  idea,  we  have  the  ludicrous. 


2.  The  Beautiful. 

As  the  aesthetic  emotions  are  states  of  feeling,  they  can- 
not be  defined  ;  nor  can  they  be  described,  except  to  those 
who  have  experienced  them.  As  light  is  incomprehensible 
to  one  born  bhnd,  so  is  beauty  to  one  devoid  of  taste. 
Beauty  may  be  rudely  described,  however,  as  an  emotion 
of  pleasure  awakened  in  the  mind  by  external  objects  or 
one's  own  thoughts.  It  affords  to  the  mind  an  exquisite 
satisfaction  independently  of  any  use  to  which  the  object 
that  awakens  it  may  be  devoted. 

A  landscape  on  a  clear  May  morning,  when  the  birds 
arc  singing,  and  the  green  fields  stretch  away  till  they 
seem  to  blend  with  the  blue  sky,  while  the  cattle  roam 
over  them  along  the  winding  streams, — may  be  taken  as 
an  example  of  beauty. 

We  may  note  some  of  the  causes  of  beauty  in  a  com- 
position. 

(1)  Harmonious  language,  or  such  as  conforms  to  the 
rules  for  harmony,  is  highly  conducive  to  beauty  in  works 
of  literature.  Many  writers  mainly  owe  their  success  to 
their  felicity  of  phrase.  As  an  example  of  the  charm  that 
musical  expression  may  lend  to  a  simple  thought,  take  this 
description  of  a  cascade : 


How  does  the  water  come  down  at  Lodorc  ? 
Here  it  conies  sparkling, 
Atid  tlKTc  it  lies  darkliiifr ; 


148  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

Rising  and  leaping, 

Sinking  and  creeping, 

Swelling  and  flinging, 

Showering  and  springing, 

Eddying  and  whisking, 

Spouting  and  frisking, 

Twining  and  twisting, 

Around  and  around, 

With  endless  rebound. 
And  falling  and  crawling  and  sprawling, 
And  driving  and  riving  and  striving. 
And  sprinkling  and  twinkling  and  wrinkling, 
And  sounding  and  bounding  and  rounding, 
And  bubbling  and  troubling  and  doubling. 
Dividing  and  gliding  and  sliding, 
And  grumbling  and  rumbling  and  tumbling, 
And  clattering  and  battering  and  shattering  : 
And  gleaming  and  steaming,  and  streaming  and  beaming. 
And  rushing  and  flushing,  and  brushing  and  gushing, 
And  flapping  and  rapping,  and  clapping  and  slapping, 
And  curling  and  whirling,  and  purling  and  twirling. 
Retreating  and  beating,  and  meeting  and  sheeting. 
Delaying  and  straying,  and  playing  and  spraying, 
Advancing  and  prancing,  and  glancing  and  dancing. 
And  so  never  ending,  but  always  descending. 
Sounds  and  motions  for  ever  and  ever  are  blending. 
All  at  once  and  all  o'er,  with  a  mighty  uproar. 
And  this  way  the  water  comes  down  at  Lodore  1 " 

SotTTHET. 


(2)  Concrete  ideas  render  a  composition  beautiful  by 
filling  the  mind  with  pictures.  The  abstract  is  dry  and 
devoid  of  power  over  the  imagination.  Concrete  ideas 
have  form  and  sometimes  color,  and  so  appeal  to  the  mind 
through  material  objects  which  are  their  symbols.  Such 
a  use  of  language  is  sometimes  called  "word-painting." 
Mark  the  concrete  form  of  expression  in  the  following 
description  of  Napoleon : 


"Flung  into  life  in  the  midst  of  a  revolution  that  quickened  every  energy  of  a 
people  who  acknowledge  no  superior,  he  commenced  his  course,  a  stranger  by 
birth,  and  a  scholar  by  charity  1  With  no  friend  but  his  sword,  and  no  fortune 
but  his  talents,  he  rushed  into  the  lists  where  rank,  and  wealth,  and  genius  bad 
arrayed  themselves,  and  competition  fled  from  him  as  from  the  glance  of  des- 
tiny.   He  knew  no  motive  but  interest— he  acknowledged  no  criterion  but  sue- 


GRITIGI8M.  149 

cess— he  worshipped  no  God  but  ambition,  and,  with  an  eastern  devotion,  he 

knelt  at  the  shrine  of  his  idolatry 

"A  professed  Catholic,  he  imprisoned  the  Pope  ;  a  pretended  patriot,  he  im- 
poverished the  country  ;  and,  in  the  name  of  Brutus,  he  grasped  without  remorse, 
and  wore  without  shame  the  diadem  of  the  Caesars  1  Through  this  pantomime  of 
policy,  fortune  played  the  clown  to  his  caprices.  At  his  touch,  crowns  crumbled, 
beggars  reigned,  systems  vanished,  the  wildest  theories  took  the  color  of  his 
whim,  and  all  that  was  venerable,  and  all  that  was  novel,  changed  places  with 
the  rapidity  of  a  drama." 

Charles  PHiiiLiPS. 


(3)  Figures,  when  fresh  and  appropriate,  contribute  to 
the  beauty  of  style.  Observe  how  beautifully  Shelley,  by 
means  of  a  few  striking  figures,  describes  the  approach  of 
winter : 

"Winter  came  ;  the  wind  was  his  whip  ; 
One  choppy  finger  was  on  his  lip : 
He  had  torn  the  cataracts  from  the  hills, 
And  they  clanked  at  his  girdle  like  manacles  ; 
His  breath  was  a  chain  that  without  a  sound 
The  earth,  and  the  air,  and  the  water  bound  ; 
He  came  fiercely  driven  in  his  chariot-throne, 
By  the  teu-fold  blasts  of  the  arctic  zone." 

(4)  Beautiful  objects  impart  some  of  their  natural  at- 
tractiveness to  the  composition  in  which  they  are  well 
described.  The  poet's  soul  transforms  into  rhythmical 
language  the  beauty  which  he  sees  in  nature.  Shakes- 
peare thus  describes  a  night  scene : 

"  How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank  1 
Here  will  we  sit,  and  let  the  sounds  of  music 
Creep  in  our  ears :  soft  stillness  and  the  night 
Become  the  touches  of  sweet  harmony. 
Sit,  Jessica.    Look  how  the  floor  of  heaven 
Is  thick  inlaid  with  patines  of  bright  gold  : 
There's  not  the  smallest  orb  which  thou  behold'et 
But  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings, 
Still  quiring  to  the  young-eyed  cherubims ; 
Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls." 

(5)  Noble  sentiments,  when  suitably  expressed,  produce 


150  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

the  emotion  of  beauty.    The  following  passage  is  especially 
beautiful  from  this  cause: 


"No  life 
Can  he  pure  in  its  purpose  and  strong  in  its  strife 
And  all  life  not  be  purer  and  Btrongcr  thereby. 
The  spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  on  high, 
The  army  of  martyrs  who  stand  by  the  Throne 
And  gaze  into  the  Face  that  makes  glorious  their  own, 
Know  this,  surely,  at  last.    Honest  love,  honest  sorrow, 
Honest  work  for  the  day,  honest  hope  for  the  morrow. 
Are  these  worth  nothing  more  than  the  hand  they  make  weary  f 
The  heart  they  have  sjidden'd,  the  life  they  leave  dreary, 
Hush  I  the  seven-fold  heavens  to  the  voice  of  the  Spirit 
Echo :  He  that  o'ercometh  shall  all  things  inherit." 


(6)  Worthy  characters  add  beauty  to  the  compositions 
in  which  they  are  described  and  their  virtues  commended. 
Among  the  finest  passages  in  literature  are  those  in  which 
the  great  and  good  are  held  up  for  our  admiration.  The 
following  description  of  the  village  pastor  is  universally 
admired  : 


A  man  was  he  to  all  the  country  dear. 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year ; 

Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race. 

Nor  e'er  had  changed,  nor  wished  to  change,  his  place ; 

Uupracticed  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power. 

By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour  ; 

For  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize, 

More  skilled  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 

His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train ; 

He  chid  their  wanderings  but  relieved  their  pain : 

The  long  remembered  beggar  was  his  guest, 

Whose  beard  descending  swept  his  aged  breast ; 

The  ruined  spendthrift,  now  no  longer  proud. 

Claimed  kindred  there,  and  had  his  claims  allowed. 


Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid. 
And  sorrow,  guilt,  and  pain  by  turns  dismajed. 
The  reverend  champion  stood.    At  his  control 
Despair  and  angnish  fled  the  struggling  soul ; 
Comfort  came  down  the  trembling  wretch  to  raise,. 
And  his  last  faltering  accents  whispered  praise. 


CBIT1GI8M.  151 

At  church,  with  meek  and  unaflFected  grace. 
His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place  ; 
Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway, 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scofE,  remained  to  pray. 
The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man, 
With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran  ; 
Even  children  followed  with  endearing  wile. 
And  plucked  his  gown  to  share  the  good  man's  smile. 
His  ready  smile  a  parent's  warmth  expressed  ; 
Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distressed: 
To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs  were  given. 
But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven." 


3.  The  Sublime. 

Like  the  emotion  awakened  by  the  beautiful,  that 
aroused  by  the  sublime  cannot  be  defined.  It  differs  from 
the  beautiful  in  the  greater  excitement  of  mind  and  feel- 
ing of  awe  which  accompany  it.  Like  the  beautiful,  the 
sublime  gives  pleasure ;  but  it  is  of  short  duration,  while 

*'  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever/' 

A  raging  storm,  when  darkness,  thunder  and  lightning 
combine  to  awe  the  soul  with  the  thought  of  its  own 
weakness, — may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  sublimity. 

Some  of  the  causes  of  sublimity  in  literature  are  the 
following. 

(1)  Simplicity  of  expression  contributes  to  the  awaken- 
ing of  this  emotion.  The  words  are  few  and  the  con- 
struction plain  in  the  sentences  which  men  generally 
regard  as  sublime.  For  example,  the  expression  cited  by 
Longinus,  "  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  Uglit :  and  there 
was  light y'' — is  composed  wholly  of  monosyllables. 

Some  one  has  pointed  out  the  effect  of  changing  the  sublime  words 
of  Genesis  into  the  following  foi-m  :  "  The  sovereign  arbiter  of  nature, 
by  the  potent  energy  of  a  single  word,  commanded  light  to  exist, 
and  immediately  it  sprang  into  being."    This  is  mere  bombast. 


152  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

(2)  Representations  of  great  power  are  usually  sublime. 
Tempests,  rushing  rivers,  volcanic  eruptions,  conflagra- 
tions, cataracts,  battles,  heroic  feats  of  arms,  all  tend,  when 
vividly  presented  to  the  imagination,  to  awaken  the  emo- 
tion of  sublimity.  The  following  passage  from  Coleridge's 
**  Hymn  to  Mont  Blanc"  illustrates  this  statement. 

*'  Ye  ice-falls  !  ye  that  from  the  mountain's  brow 
Adown  enormous  ravines  slope  amain,— 
Torrents,  methinks,  that  heard  a  mi«:hty  voice, 
And  stopped  at  once  amid  their  maddest  plange ! 
Motionless  torrents  1  silent  cataracts ! 
Who  made  you  glorious  as  the  gates  of  heaven 
Beneath  the  keen  full  moon  ?    W^ho  hade  the  sun 
Clothe  you  with  rainbows  ?    Who  with  living  flowers 
Of  loveliest  blue,  spread  garlands  at  your  feet  ?— 
God  t  let  the  torrents,  like  a  shout  of  nations, 
Answer  I  and  let  the  ice-plains  echo,  God  ! — 
And  they,  too,  have  a  voice,— yon  piles  of  snow — 
And  in  their  perilous  fall  shall  thunder,  God  I " 

(3)  Strong  moral  purpose  produces  the  feeling  of  sub- 
limity. Many  of  the  finest  utterances  in  human  history 
owe  their  power  over  the  hearts  of  men  to  the  sublimity 
of  lofty  purpose.  This  is  called  the  moraly  and  sometimes 
the  sentimental,  sublime.    Some  examples  are  given  below. 

(1)  Devotion  to  friends,  under  circumstances  of  difficulty  and  dan- 
ger, is  sublime.  The  celebrated  story  of  Damon  and  Pythias  illus- 
trates this.  Damon,  having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Dionysius,  ty- 
rant of  Syracuse,  was  sentenced  to  death.  Pythias  remained  as  a 
hostage,  while  his  friend  visited  his  family,  with  the  understanding 
that  he  would  be  executed  if  Damon  did  not  return,  Damon,  true  to 
his  friend,  came  back  before  the  appointed  time. 
^  (2)  Devotion  to  country  is  often  sublime.  The  story  of  Marcus 
Curtius,  a  Roman  youth  who  plunged  into  a  chasm  which  had  opened 
in  the  forum,  to  render  his  country  perpetual,  as  the  prophets  de- 
clared he  would, — is  an  example  of  sublime  patriotism. 

(3)  Devotion  to  honor  is  often  sublime.  Regulus  the  Roman, 
having  given  his  oath  to  return  to  Carthage,  where  he  was  a  captive. 


CBITICI8M.  153 

if  his  visit  to  Rome  should  not  prove  successful  in  seeming  an 
exchange  of  prisoners,  dissuaded  his  countrymen  from  making  an 
exchange,  and  returned  to  Carthage  to  suffer  the  most  cruel  tor- 
tures. 

The  most  sublime  words  ever  uttered  are  those  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  hour  of  his  agony  on  the  cross,  "  Father,  forgive  them,  for  they 
know  not  what  they  do." 

(4)  Dangerous  situations  arouse  this  emotion  in  those 
who  are  not  personally  in  danger.  Hence  descriptions  of 
perilous  scenes  are  generally  sublime.  The  following  from 
a  translation  of  Homer  illustrates  this  form  of  the  sub- 
lime. Odysseus  is  shipwrecked,  and  this  is  the  description 
of  his  landing : 

"  But  now  within  a  voice-throw  of  the  rocks 
The  sound  of  waters  did  his  ears  appall, 
Full  on  the  coast  the  great  waves'  thunder-shocks 
Roll,  and  afar  the  wet  foam-vapors  fall. 
No  roadstead  there,  no  haven  seemed  at  all, 
Nor  shelter  where  a  ship  might  rest  at  ease  ; 
But  from  the  main-earth  darted  a  wild  wall 
Of  headlands.    Then  Odysseus'  heart  and  knees 
Were  loosened  ;  and  his  soul  thus  spake  in  the  deep  seas." 

(5.)  Indignation  sometimes  arouses  the  emotion  of  sub- 
limity. The  following,  from  Catiline's  imagined  address 
to  the  senate  of  Rome,  rises  to  the  sublime  : 

"  Here  I  devote  your  senate !    I've  had  wrongs. 
To  stir  a  fever  in  the  blood  of  age, 
Or  make  the  infant's  sinews  strong  as  steel. 
This  day's  the  birth  of  sorrow !    This  hour's  work 
Will  breed  proscriptions,— look  to  your  hearths,  my  lords, 
For  there  henceforth  shall  sit,  for  household  gods, 
Shapes  hot  from  Tartarus  !  all  shames  and  crimes, — 
Wan  Treachery  with  his  thirsty  dagger  drawn  ; 
Suspicion  poisoning  his  brother's  cup  ; 
Naked  Rebellion,  with  the  torch  and  axe, 
Making  his  wild  sport  of  your  blazing  thrones ; 
Till  Anarchy  come  down  on  you  like  Night, 
And  Massacre  seal  Rome's  eternal  grave  !  " 


154  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

(6.)  Vastness  of  time  op  space  is  conducive  to  this  emo- 
tion. Thoughts  of  eternity  or  boundless  space  are  espe- 
cially sublime.  Even  mountains  and  oceans  afford  such 
expansion  to  the  imagination  as  to  produce  a  feeling  of 
sublimity.  The  following  passage  from  Bryant  is  sublime 
from  the  comparative  insignificance  of  man  as  well  as  the 
vastness  of  creation,  both  of  which  are  made  prominent 
throughout. 

"The  golden  puti, 
The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven, 
Arc  shining  on  the  Bad  abodes  of  death, 
Through  the  still  lapse  of  age?.    All  that  tread 
The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom.— Take  the  wings 
Of  morning,— and  the  Barcan  dcseit  pierce, 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 
Save  his  own  dashings,— yet  the  dead  are  there ; 
And  millions,  in  those  solitudes,  eince  first 
The  flight  of  years  began,  have  laid  them  down 
In  their  last  sleep." 

(7. )  Mystery  is  a  potent  cause  of  the  sublime.  Thoughts 
about  darkness,  death,  the  world  of  spirits,  supernatural 
events,  and  the  inscrutable  providences  of  deity,  are  full 
of  sublimity.  The  following  passage  from  Job  is  an 
example : 

"  In  thoughts  ftom  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep  sleep  fallcth  on  men, 
fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake.  Then  a 
spirit  passed  before  my  face ;  the  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up.  Tt  stood  still,  but 
I  could  not  discern  the  form  thereof;  an  image  was  before  mine  eyes,  there  was 
silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice  saying:  'Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God? 
shall  a  man  be  more  pure  than  his  Maker  ? ' " 


4.  The  Witty. 

The  feeling  produced  by  the  witty  is  not  so  purely  emo- 
tional as  that  occasioned  by  the  sublime  and  the  beautiful. 


CRITICISM.  155 

It  is  characterized  by  some  perversion  of  thought,  and 
depends  chiefly  upon  (1)  the  association  of  incongruities, 
(2)  expressed  in  brief  and  pointed  lauguage.  As  its  basis 
is  an  odd  fancy,  wit  is  short-lived. 

The  nature  of  wit  will  be  more  clearly  seen  from  its 
causes. 

(1.)  Incongruity  is  a  principal  source  of  wit.  We  find 
in  nature  a  regular  succession  of  events  and  a  proportion 
between  events  and  their  causes.  When  this  regularity 
and  proportion  are  violated,  surprise  is  awakened,  and,  if 
trivial,  the  detection  of  the  incongruity  awakens  the  emo- 
tion of  the  ludicrous.  The  following  example  will  illus- 
trate this  kind  of  wit : 

"  'Twas  night !  the  stars  were  shrouded  in  a  veil  of  mist ;  a  cloudy  canopy 
o'erhunfi:  the  world  ;  the  vivid  lightninjijs  flashed  and  shook  their  fiery  darts  upon 
the  earth  ;  the  deep-toned  thunder  rolled  along  the  vaulted  sky ;  the  elements 
were  in  wild  commotion  ;  the  storm-spirit  howled  in  the  air ;  the  winds  whistled; 
the  hail-stones  fell  like  leaden  balls  ;  the  huge  undulations  of  the  ocean  dashed 
upon  the  rock-bound  shore  ;  and  torrents  leaped  from  the  mountain-tops,  when 
the  murderer  sprang  from  his  sleepless  couch  with  vengeance  on  his  brow, — mur- 
der in  his  heart,- and  the  fell  instrument  of  destraction  in  his  hand. 

"The  storm  increased;  the  lightning  flashed  with  brighter  glare  ;  the  thunder 
growled  with  deeper  energy  ;  the  winds  whistled  with  a  wilder  fury  ;  the  confu- 
sion of  the  hour  was  congenial  to  his  soul,  and  the  stormy  passions  which  raged 
in  his  bosom.  He  clenched  his  weapon  with  a  sterner  grasp  A  demoniac  smile 
gathered  on  his  lip  ;  he  grated  his  teeth  ;  raised  his  arm  ;  sprang  with  a  yell  of 
triumph  upon  his  victim ;  and  relentlessly  killed— a  mosquito  I  " 

Any  degradation  of  a  dignified  subject,  or  undue  elevation  of  a 
mean  one,  is  called  a  Burlesque.  A  combination  of  tlie  great  and 
the  little  is  called  by  the  same  name. 

Tlie  Mock-heroic  is  the  degradation  of  that  which  is  grand  to  that 
which  is  insignificant.     It  is  a  form  of  burlesque. 

A  Parody  or  Travesty  is  a  burlesque  imitation  of  something 
serious,  as  the  following: 

Original.    "  O,  ever  thus,  from  childhood's  hour, 
I've  seen  my  fondest  hopes  decay  : 
I  never  loved  a  tree  or  flower, 
But  'twas  the  first  to  fiide  away." 


15G  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIO. 

Pabody.    "  O,  ever  thus,  from  childhood'B  hour 
This  cruel  fate  on  me  hath  fell ; 
There  always  comes  a  soaking  shower 
When  I've  forgot  my  umberell." 


(2)  Unexpected  coincidence  is  a  source  of  wit.  The 
detectioQ  of  undiscovered  resemblances,  a  play  upon  words 
having  the  same  sound  but  different  senses,  and  a  quick 
perversion  of  the  intended  meaning,  are  regarded  as  witty. 
The  following  are  illustrations  : 

"  An  epigram  is,  like  a  bee 
A  lively  little  thing ; 
Its  body  small,  its  honey  sweet, 
And  in  its  tail  a  sting.'''' 

"  Pope  came  off  clean  with  Homer ;  but  they  say 
Broome  went  before  and  kindly  swept  the  way." 

The  play  upon  the  name  of  a  previous  translator  of  Homer  in  the 
last  example  is  called  Paronomasia,  or  Pun. 

A  witty  reply  is  called  Repartee.  This  is  an  example :  "  Said  a 
would-be  agreeable,  taking  his  seat  between  the  brilliant  Madame 
de  Stael  and  the  reigning  beauty  of  the  day,  *  How  happy  I  am  to 
be  thus  seated  between  a  wit  and  a  beauty.'  '  Yes/  replied  Madame 
de  Stael,   '  and  without  possessing  either  / ' " 

An  apparent  congruity  which  is  in  reality  an  incongruity  is  called 
a  Bull.  A  poor  Irish  peasant  was  floundering  through  a  bog  on  a 
pony.  In  its  efforts  to  gain  solid  ground,  the  animal  entangled  one 
of  its  feet  in  a  stirrup.  "  Arrah,  me  boy  ! "  exclaimed  the  rider,  "  if 
you  are  getting  up,  it's  time  for  me  to  get  down." 

5.   The  Humorous. 

Humor  is  wit  with  an  infusion  of  good  nature  and  sym- 
pathy. Wit  is  a  brilliant  flash ;  humor  is  a  lingering  sun- 
beam, cheering  while  it  brightens.  It  is  nobler  than  wit, 
for  it  mingles  the  emotions  of  the  heart  with  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  intellect.  Some  of  the  sources  of  humor 
are  mentioned  below. 


GBIT1GI8M.  157 

The  following  fine  distinction  between  wit  and  humor  is  drawn 
by  E.  P.  Whipple  : 

"  Wit  laughs  at  things  ;  humor  laughs  with  them.  Wit  lashes 
external  appearances,  or  cunningly  exaggerates  single  foibles  into 
character  ;  humor  glides  into  the  heart  of  its  object,  looks  lovingly 
on  the  infirmities  it  detects,  and  represents  the  whole  man. 

"  Wit  is  abrupt,  darting,  scornful,  and  tosses  its  analogies  in  your 
face  ;  humor  is  slow  and  shy,  insinuating  its  fun  into  your  heart. 

Wit  is  negative,  analytical,  destructive  :  humor  is  creative 

Old  Dr.  Fuller's  remark  that  a  negro  is  '  the  image  of  God  in  ebony,' 
is  humorous  ;  Horace  Smith's,  that  '  the  task  master  is  the  image  of 
the  devil  cut  in  ivory,'  is  witty." 


(1)  Playful  freedom  of  expression  is  a  source  of  humor. 
It  is  exemplified  in  the  following  passage  of  Hawthorne's 
"  Rill  from  the  Town  Pump."     The  Pump  says : 

"  Welcome,  most  rubicund  sir  !  You  and  I  have  been  great  strangers  hitherto; 
nor,  to  confess  the  truth,  will  my  nose  be  anxious  for  a  closer  intimacy,  till  the 
fumes  of  your  breath  be  a  little  less  potent.  Mercy  on  you,  man  1  the  water  abso- 
lutely hisses  down  I  Fill  again,  and  tell  me,  on  the  word  of  an  honest  toper,  did 
you  ever,  in  cellar,  tavern,  or  any  kind  of  dram-shop,  spend  the  price  of  your 
children's  food  for  a  swig  half  so  delicious?  Now,  for  the  first  time  these  ten 
years,  you  know  the  flavor  of  cold  water.  Good-bye ;  and,  whenever  you  are 
thirsty,  remember  that  I  keep  a  constant  supply,  at  the  old  stand." 


(2)  Human  failings,  when  spoken  of  without  severity, 
give  rise  to  the  feeling  of  the  humorous.  Thackeray  and 
Dickens  are  especially  fine  in  their  humorous  treatment 
of  character.  "The  Pickwick  Papers"  is  humorous 
throughout.  A  sufficiently  long  example  to  illustrate  this 
source  of  humor  cannot  be  introduced  here. 

(3)  Joking  one's  self  often  has  a  humorous  efiect.  How- 
ever sharp  the  jest,  it  is  universally  understood  that  the 
jester  has  a  kindly  regard  for  himself,  which  divests  his 
expressions  of  all  asperity. 


158  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

Sydney  Smith  remarked  to  tbe  Chapter  of  St.  Paul's,  on  the  pro- 
posal to  lay  a  wooden  pavement  around  the  building,  "If  we  lay 
our  heads  together,  the  thing  is  done."  As  he  includes  himself,  this 
is  humorous.  If  he  had  said,  "  it  you  ]aj  your  heads  together,"  it 
would  have  been  witty,  but  not  humorous. 


6.   The  Pathetic. 

Pathos,  or  the  tender  emotion,  is  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful elements  of  both  literature  and  oratory.  It  is  founded 
on  sympathy,  and  seldom  fails  to  engage  the  interest  and 
touch  the  heart.  It  is  the  secret  charm  of  love  tales  and 
the  poetry  of  the  affections. 

Some  of  its  causes  may  be  pointed  out. 

(1)  Examples  of  compassion  in  others  produce  the 
emotion  of  pathos.  Burke's  description  of  Howard  is  a 
fine  instance : 

"He  has  visited  all  Europe,  to  dive  into  tlie  depths  of  dungeons;  to  plunge 
into  the  infections  of  hospitals ;  to  survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow  and  pain ;  to 
talte  the  gauge  and  dimensions  of  misery,  depression,  and  contempt ;  to  reraemher 
the  forgotten,  to  attend  to  the  neglected,  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  compare  and 
collate  the  distresses  of  all  men  in  all  countries." 

(2)  Scenes  of  sorrow  and  suffering  touch  the  heart 
with  sympathy,  and  awaken  a  feeling  of  pathos.  Irving's 
description  of  the  burial  of  a  widow's  son,  will  serve  as  an 
example  : 

"  The  service  being  ended,  preparations  were  made  to  deposit  the  coffin  in  the 
earth.  There  was  that  bustling  stir  that  breaks  so  harshly  on  the  feelings  of 
grief  and  affection ;  directions  were  given  in  the  cold  tones  of  business ;  the 
striking  of  spades  into  sand  and  gravel,  which,  at  the  grave  of  those  we  love,  is 
of  all  sounds  the  most  withering.  The  bustle  around  seemed  to  awaken  the 
mother  from  a  wretched  reverie.  She  raised  her  glazed  eyes,  and  looked  about 
with  a  faint  wildness.  As  the  men  approached  with  cords  to  lower  the  coflin  into 
the  grave,  she  wrung  her  hands  and  broke  into  an  agony  of  grief.  The  poor 
wr»man  who  attended  her,  took  her  by  the  arm,  endeavored  to  raise  her  from  the 


CRITICISM.  159 

earth,  and  whispered  somcthuig  like  consolation As  they  lowered 

the  body  into  the  earth,  the  crackling  of  the  cords  seemed  to  agonize  her ;  but 
when,  on  some  accidental  obstruction,  there  was  a  jostling  of  the  coffin,  all  the 
tenderness  of  the  mother  burst  forth;  as  if  any  harm  could  come  to  him  who  was 
far  beyond  the  reach  of  worldly  suffering."  See  also  the  story  entitled '' The 
Broken  Heart,"  in  Irving's  "  Sketch-Book." 


(3)  Personal  devotion,  under  circumstances  of  trial  and 
disappointment,  is  often  pathetic.  The  story  of  Evange- 
line's sorrow  and  search  for  her  lost  lover,  so  beautifully 
told  by  Longfellow,  enlists  our  sympathies  for  the  unfor- 
tunate maiden.    The  following  is  a  passage  from  the  poem : 

"  Thus  did  the  long  sad  years  glide  on,  and  m  seasons  and  places 
Divers  and  distant  far  was  seen  the  wandering  maiden : — 
Now  in  the  tents  of  grace  of  the  meek  Moravian  Missions, 
Now  in  the  noisy  camps  and  the  battlefields  of  the  army, 
Now  in  secluded  hamlets,  in  towns  and  populous  cities. 
Like  a  phantom  she  came,  and  passed  away  unremembered. 
Fair  was  she  and  young,  when  in  hope  began  the  long  journey ; 
Faded  was  she  and  old,  when  in  disappointment  it  ended. 
Each  succeeding  year  stole  something  away  from  her  beauty, 
Leaving  behind  it,  broader  and  deeper,  the  gloom  and  the  sliadow, 
Then  there  appeared  and  spread  faint  streaks  of  gray  o'er  her  forehead, 
Dawn  of  another  life,  that  broke  o'er  her  earthly  horizon, 
As  in  the  eastern  sky  the  first  faint  streaks  of  the  morning." 


(4)  Reminiscences  op  prospects  of  loss  are  touching. 
The  thought  of  departed  greatness,  past  magnificence, 
perished  beauty,  or  extinguished  virtue  awakens  pathos  in 
the  soul.  In  like  manner  the  expectation  of  death  or 
separation  from  loved  objects,  arouses  pathetic  feeling. 
Wolsey's  Soliloquy  illustrates  this  sentiment : 

So,  farewell  to  the  little  good  you  bear  me. 
Farewell,  a  long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness  ! 
This  is  the  state  of  man  :  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope  ;  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him  : 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost ; 
And,— when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  (surely 
Uis  greatness  is  a  ripening,— nips  his  root. 


160  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG, 

And  then  he  falls  as  1  do.    I  have  ventnr'd 
Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders, 
This  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory ; 
Uut  far  beyond  my  depth  :  my  high-blown  pride    , 
At  length  broke  under  me  ;  and  now  has  left  me, 
Weary  and  old  with  service,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a  rude  stream,  that  must  forever  hide  me. 
Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye. 
I  feel  my  heart  new-open'd.    O,  how  wretched 
Is  that  poor  man  that  hangs  on  princes'  favors  I 
There  is,  betwixt  that  smile  we  would  aspire  to, 
That  sweet  aspect  of  princes,  and  their  ruin, 
More  pangs  and  fears  than  wars  or  women  have : 
And  when  he  falls,  he  falls  like  Lucifer, 
Never  to  hope  again. 

In  this  section,  on  "The  Pleasures  of  Taste,"  we 
have  considered  :— 

1,  The  Kinds  of  Esthetic  pleasure, 

2,  The  BeautifuL 

3,  The  Sublime. 

4,  The  Witty, 

5,  The  Humorous, 

6,  The  Pathetic. 


CHAPTEH   V. 

SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Kinds  of  Composition. 

HAViiiTG  considered  the  general  principles  of  composi- 
tion, we  may  now  attend  to  some  of  its  special  forms. 
The  principal  forms  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Prose  (from  the  Latin  'prosa  contracted  from  prorsa, 
and  that  from  proversus,  straight  forward)  is  the  general 
name  for  all  forms  of  discourse  which  are  not  in  yerse. 
It  has,  however,  a  narrower  meaning.  In  its  narrow  sense, 
it  means  representative  discourse,  or  such  as  aims  only  to 
represent  the  theme  to  the  intellect  with  clearness  and 
force.  Hence  the  adjective  prosaic  is  applied  to  that  which 
does  not  awaken  the  emotions. 

(2)  Poetry  (from  the  Greek  noieiv^  poiein,  to  make)  is 
the  common  word  for  all  that  is  expressed  in  verse.  This 
also  has  a  narrower  sense.  That  is  called  poetry  which 
arouses  feeling  or  awakens  the  aesthetic  emotions.  Its 
natural  form  is  meter  and  rhyme,  but  the  Book  of  Job  is 
a  poem  which,  in  its  ordinary  English  form,  has  neither 
meter  nor  rhyme.  From  this  sense  of  the  word,  arises 
the  adjective  poetical,  applied  to  that  which  arouses  the 
aesthetic  emotions. 


162  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOItlG. 

(3)  Eloquence  (from  the  Latin  eloqui,  to  speak  out)  is 
popularly  regarded  as  a  form  of  prose,  but  differs  from 
common  prose.  It  is  an  utterance  of  one's  feelings  with 
the  aim  of  producing  similar  feelings  in  others,  and  so 
influencing  the  will.  It  differs  from  poetry  in  being  per- 
suasive, while  the  end  of  poetry  is  not  to  persuade,  but  to 
please. 

Each  of  these  forms  of  composition  has  a  great  number  of  varieties. 
Mucli  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  classifying  them,  but  no  really 
philosophical  classification  has  yet  been  made.  We  may  mention 
some  of  the  principal  forms  of  prose,  reserving  the  varieties  of  elo- 
quence and  poetry  for  another  place. 

A  History  (from  the  Greek  lampeiv,  Jiistorein,  to  learn,  to  know  by 
inquiry)  is  a  narrative  of  events.  It  is  usually  arranged  in  a  method- 
ical manner,  so  as  to  sliow  the  connection  of  causes  and  effects. 

A  Chronicle  (from  the  Greek  xpoviKoc,  kronieos,  concerning  time) 
is  a  history  in  which  the  events  axe  stated  with  special  reference 
to  the  order  of  time. 

Annals  (from  the  Latin  annalis,  from  annus,  a  year)  are  a  chron- 
icle divided  into  distinct  years. 

Biography  (from  the  Greek  (3iocy  bios,  life,  and  ypdipeiv,  graphein, 
to  write)  is  the  narrative  of  an  individual  life. 

An  Autobiography  (from  the  Greek,  uvtSc;,  autos,  self,  and  English 
biography)  is  a  biography  written  by  the  person  whoso  life  is 
narrated. 

A  Memoir  (from  the  Latin  7«emmrt,  memory)  is  a  history  com- 
posed from  personal  experiences  and  memory. 

A  Novel  (from  the  Latin  novellus,  diminutive  of  noons,  new)  is  a 
fictitious  narrative,  designed  to  represent  the  operation  of  human 
passions,  especially  of  love. 

A  Romance  (from  the  Latin  romandum,  a  dialect  in  which  this 
kind  of  composition  was  first  written)  is  a  kind  of  novel  which  treats 
of  wild  or  startling  adventures,  particularly  in  love  or  war. 

A  Tale  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  teUan,  to  tell)  is  a  short  narrative, 
and  may  be  either  true  or  false. 

An  Essay  (from  the  Latin  exagium,  a  weighing,  but  commonly 
referred  to  the  French  essayer,  to  attempt)  is  a  brief  composition  on 
any  theme,  generally  designed  to  set  forth  one's  views  on  the  sub- 
ject, but  impersonal  and  dignified  in  its  style.     Some  books  are  called 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  163 

essays,  as  Locke's  "Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding."     The 
word  is  more  commonly  applied  to  a  shorter  composition. 

A  Dissertation  (from  the  Latin  dissertatio,  a  discourse)  is  a  formal 
and  elaborate  essay.  The  name  is  less  commonly  applied  to  com- 
positions than  formerly. 

A  Treatise  (from  the  English  verb  to  treat)  implies  a  more  formal 
and  methodical  treatment  than  an  essay,  but  is  not  necessarily  a  full 
and  elaborate  discussion  of  the  subject. 

A  Tract  (from  the  Latin  tractus,  from  traliere,  to  draw)  is  a  short 
treatise,  and  especially  a  brief  treatise  on  practical  religion. 

A  Critique  (from  the  Greek  KpiriKoc,  kritikos,  from  Kpiveiv,  krinein, 
to  judge)  is  a  critical  examination  of  a  literary  production,  in  which 
its  merits  and  defects  are  estimated. 

A  Review  (from  the  Latin  re,  again,  mdere,  to  see)  is  a  critique 
published  in  some  critical  journal  or  magazine.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  certain  periodical  publications,  originally  designed  for  the 
criticism  of  new  books,  but  now  often  devoted  to  current  topics  of  in- 
terest, as  the  "North  American  Review." 


a.   Method  of  Treatment. 

As  it  is  impossible  withia  our  limits  to  discuss  all  the 
various  kinds  of  composition,  only  such  as  nearly  all  per- 
sons need  to  know  soraetliing  about  are  considered  in  this 
book.    The  most  important  are 

1,  DesciHptions* 

2,  Narratives, 

3,  Letters, 

4,  Orations,    And, 

5,  Poems, 

These  will  be  treated  of  in  the  following  sections. 


164  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

SECTIOIT    I. 

DESCRIPTIONS. 

1.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Description. 

A  description  ought  to  have  the  following  qualities. 

(1)  It  should  have  a  purpose.  It  is  generally  undesir- 
able to  enumerate  all  the  qualities  of  what  we  are  describ- 
ing, for  this  would  make  the  description  tedious.  By 
having  some  purpose  definitely  fixed  in  the  mind,  we  are 
able  to  select  only  such  circumstances  as  are  relevant.  A 
description  which  would  be  suitable  to  a  poem  would  not 
be  of  much  value  to  a  man  of  science. 

(2)  It  should  have  unity.  The  impression  made  upon 
the  mind  should  be  that  of  one  thing,  all  of  whose  parts 
are  properly  connected.  A  natural  order  in  considering 
the  parts  conduces  to  unity.  In  describing  a  tree,  for 
example,  it  would  be  a  violation  of  unity  to  speak  first  of 
its  trunk,  then  of  its  fruit,  then  of  its  leaves,  and  finally 
of  its  size  and  shape.  It  would  be  better  first  of  all  to 
mention  its  size  and  shape ;  and  then,  beginning  at  the 
trunk,  to  follow  the  branches  to  the  leaves,  and  finally 
describe  the  fruit.  In  this  way  the  growth  of  our  idea  of 
the  tree  would  follow  the  order  of  nature  in  the  growth 
of  the  tree  itself. 

(3)  It  should  be  complete.  It  is  not  meant  that  a 
description  must  contain  all  that  can  be  said  of  that  which 
is  described.  A  description  is  complete  when  nothing- 
essential  to  the  purpose  has  been  omitted.  Circum- 
stances of  time,  place,  and  habit,  are  often  important.    In 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  165 

descriptions  of  things  which  change,  the  time  of  observa- 
tion ought  to  be  noted.  Animals  are  not  adequately 
described  unless  their  habits  and  dispositions  are  noticed. 
(4)  It  should  be  brief.  When  we  read  or  hear  a  de- 
scription, we  do  not  see  all  the  parts  at  once,  as  we  do  in 
a  picture,  but  must  form  an  idea  in  our  own  minds  out  of 
the  elements  furnished  in  succession.  For  this  reason 
description  becomes  indistinct  when  it  is  very  long,  as  the 
mind  cannot  recall  and  combine  a  very  large  number  of 
details. 

The  laws  of  description  are  much  more  fully  treated  in  the 
"  Science  of  Rhetoric."  Many  abstract  principles  would  be  con- 
fusing to  the  unpracticed  writer.  Hence  no  rules  are  given  here  for 
the  description  of  mental  states  and  forms  of  character. 

There  is  scarcely  any  kind  of  composition  that  affords  more  scope 
for  genius  than  description.  To  paint  well  with  words  requires  as 
much  skill  as  to  paint  well  with  colors. 

2.  The  Process  of  Describing. 

The  successive  steps  in  the  process  of  describing  are  as 
follows  : 

(1)  Select  a  point  of  view.  Every  thing  depends  upon 
this.  A  description  cannot  have  unity  unless  the  object 
be  viewed  from  some  one  point.  It  is  confusing  to  change 
the  point  of  view  at  any  time  without  giving  notice. 

(2)  Select  characteristic  qualities.  There  are  many 
qualities  that  are  common  to  the  object  described  and  all 
similar  objects.  It  may  always  be  taken  for  granted  that  a 
reader  or  hearer  knows  something,  and  needs  to  be  in- 
formed only  of  what  is  peculiar.  An  active  mind  enjoys 
a  free  play  of  imagination  in  combining  the  elements  of 
whatever  is  described. 


166  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 

(3)  Enumerate  qualities  in  their  natural  order.  Much 
depends  upon  this.  The  more  closely  we  follow  the  order 
of  actual  conception  the  better.  When  an  object  is  de- 
scribed in  this  manner  interest  seldom  flags,  and  we  almost 
see  the  reality. 

(4)  Use  comparisons,  to  make  the  description  vivid 
and  life-like.  Some  resemblance  may  suggest  a  better 
known  or  more  striking  object.  Many  beautiful  descrip- 
tions owe  much  of  their  attractiveness  to  a  happy  com- 
parison. Goldsmith,  after  describing  the  purity,  charity 
and  tenderness  of  a  village  pastor,  concludes  with  the 
words, — 

"  As  some  tall  cliff  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 
Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm, 
Tho'  round  its  breast  the  rolliug  clouds  are  spread, 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head." 

Study  closely  the  following  masterly  description  of  the  Puritan 
Balfour  and  his  surroundings,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott : 

"  Upon  entering  the  place  of  refuge,  he  found  Balfour  seated  on  his  humble 
amch,  with  a  pocket  Bible  open  in  his  hand,  which  he  seemed  to  study  with  in- 
tense meditation.  His  broadsword,  which  he  had  unsheathed  in  the  first  alarm, 
at  the  arrival  of  the  dragoons,  lay  naked  across  his  knees,  and  the  little  taper 
that  stood  beside  him  on  the  old  chest,  which  served  the  purpose  of  a  table,  threw 
a  partial  and  imperfect  light  upon  those  stem  and  harsh /ea^wres,  in  which  fero- 
city was  rendered  more  solemn  and  dignified  by  a  wild  cast  of  tragic  enthusiasm. 
His  brow  was  that  of  one  in  whom  some  strong  o'ermastering  principle  has  over- 
whelmed all  other  passions  and  feelings,— /iAre  t?ie  swell  of  a  high  spring-tide, 
when  the  usual  clifi's  and  breakers  vanish  from  the  eye,  and  their  existence  is 
only  indicated  by  the  chafing  foam  of  the  waves  that  burst  and  wheel  over  them." 

Notice  how  the  writer  has  fulfilled  the  conditions  of  a  good  de- 
scription. First,  he  takes  his  point  of  view  at  the  entrance  to  the 
place  where  Balfour  is.  He  then  notes  the  posture  of  the  Puritan, 
the  couch  on  which  he  is  seated,  the  open  Bible  in  his  hand,  his 
meditation  in  study,  his  broadsword,  the  taper  by  his  side,  the  chest 
on  which  it  stands,  the  light  on  his  features,  his  brow  so  expressive 
of  his  character,  and  finally  completes  the  picture  with  the  impressive 
comparison  which  closes  the  passage. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  167 

In  this  section,  on  "Descriptions,"  we  have  con- 
sidered :— 

1,  The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Description, 

2,  The  Process  of  Describing. 


SSCTIOIT    11. 

NARRATIVES. 

1.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Narrative. 

A  narrative,  whether  true  or  fictitious,  should  possess 
the  following  qualities. 

(1)  It  should  have  a  purpose.  As  a  description  gives 
an  account  of  some  object,  a  narrative  gives  an  account 
of  some  event.  But  every  event,  such  as  a  storm,  a  bat- 
tle, or  a  voyage,  has  a  number  of  circumstances  connected 
with  it,  some  of  which  are  essential  to  one  purpose,  others 
to  another.  By  forming  a  distinct  purpose,  and  keeping 
it  steadily  in  view,  we  secure  interest  in  the  narrative. 

(2)  It  should  have  unity.  This  is  quite  as  necessary  in 
a  narrative  as  in  a  description,  but  more  difficult  to  secure, 
because  the  objects  described  stand  out  as  distinct  indi- 
viduals, while  events  are  closely  connected  with  others. 

(3)  It  should  be  complete.  A  narrative  should  not  be- 
gin at  such  a  point  as  to  make  the  incidents  seem  improb- 
able, nor  end  with  abruptness.  Completeness,  therefore, 
requires  that  a  narrative  commence  at  the  beginning  and 
continue  to  the  end  of  an  action.  In  order  to  be  in- 
teresting it  most  not  omit  striking  details. 


168  THE  ELEMENT8  OF  JRHETORIG. 

(4)  It  should  be  brief.  The  proverb,  "Brevity  is  the 
soul  of  wit,"  applies  with  special  aptness  to  a  narrative. 
A  story  spun  out  beyond  reasonable  limits  becomes  weari- 
some. 

The  power  of  successful  story-telling  is  a  rare  but  charming  gift. 
The  dry  chronicles  of  the  early  English  historians  contain  most  of 
the  facts  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  fascinating  romances,  but  these  dead 
facts  leaped  into  life  at  the  touch  of  the  great  enchanter.  No  one 
reads  the  old  chronicles,  but  nearly  every  one  is  delighted  with 
the  stories  based  upon  them.  The  difference  of  interest  is  owing  to 
that  power  of  genius  which  transforms  lifeless  facts  into  life-like 
pictures.  This  transformation  is,  to  a  great  extent,  the  result  of  a 
vivid  imagination,  imparting  color,  order  and  proportion  to  the  facts. 
It  may  seem  paradoxical,  but  it  is  true,  that  imagination  is  as  neces- 
sary to  the  historian  as  to  the  romancer.  Imagination  does  not  im- 
ply falsehood.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  necessary  to  the  realization 
of  all  truth  expressed  in  forms  or  material  symbols.  A  true  story,  as 
much  as  an  invented  one,  requires  imagination,  to  render  it  vivid. 
The  secret  of  successful  narrative  is  a  vivid  realization  of  details  and 
their  relations. 


2.  The  Plot  of  a  Narrative. 

Every  narrative  designed  to  be  interesting  ought  to  have 
a  plot.  By  this  is  meant  such  an  arrangement  of  inci- 
dents as  to  excite  and  retain  the  interest.  In  a  short 
anecdote,  it  is  a  mere  withholding  of  the  point  of  the 
story,  until  the  circumstances  are  all  related.  In  a  novel, 
it  is  an  intricate  combination  of  the  incidents  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  arouse  the  expectation  and  sustain  the  in- 
terest, often  for  a  long  time,  till  the  denouement,  or  issue 
of  the  story. 

The  peculiar  fascination  of  >yorks  of  fiction  depends  greatly  upon 
a  skillfully  constructed  plot.  Even  when  it  is  known  that  the  whole 
story  is  a  fabrication,  one  can  hardly  repress  the  desire  to  know  the 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  169 

end  ;  the  mind  finding  no  satisfaction  until  the  destiny  of  each  char- 
acter is  determined.  Some  persons  always  spoil  a  story  because  they 
cannot  withhold  the  conclusion  or  enshroud  it  in  mystery.  The  end 
is  known  as  soon  as  they  begin,  and,  therefore,  the  reader  cares  little 
for  the  narrative.  Others  form  a  plot  in  the  simplest  anecdote,  and 
are  listened  to  with  admiration  when  they  tell  it.  The  power  to  do 
this  is,  no  doubt,  to  a  great  extent,  a  secret  of  genius,  but  analysis  re- 
veals some  of  the  principles  which  must  be  observed. 


3.  The  Qualities  of  a  Plot. 

A  plot  shoLild  have  the  following  qualities. 

(1)  The  narrative  should  seem  important.  The  idea 
of  importance  may  be  suggested  by  foreshadowing  an  in- 
teresting conclusion.  A  strange  scene,  a  peculiar  charac- 
ter, or  a  mysterious  occurrence  is,  therefore,  generally  an 
appropriate  introduction  to  a  narrative. 

(2)  Probability  is  necessary  to  a  good  plot.  Improb- 
ability, however,  may  contribute  to  the  interest,  if  there 
be  a  reasonable  hope  of  a  final  explanation. 

(3)  Suspense  conduces  to  the  interest  of  a  story,  if  it 
be  not  too  long  continued.  Patience  must  be  rewarded, 
however,  at  intervals  by  some  development  of  the  plot,  or 
the  narrative  seems  dull  and  interest  flags. 

(4)  Climax  is  important  in  a  narrative.  The  interest 
should  grow  as  the  story  advances,  until  the  denouement 
is  reached.  This  should  be  reserved  till  the  last,  and  not 
too  distinctly  anticipated. 

The  qualities  of  a  plot  mentioned  above  belong  to  the  best  his- 
tories as  well  as  to  works  of  fiction.  Gibbon,  Macaulay,  and  espe- 
cially Prescott,  are  sometimes  almost  dramatic  in  their  management 
of  plot.  Fiction,  however,  affords  the  finest  field  for  skillful  narrative, 
because  the  writer  is  free  to  combine  his  incidents  in  the  most  effec- 
tive way.     Some  writers  of  fiction  rely  chiefly  upon  the  plot  for  their 


170  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIG. 

success  as  story-tellers.  Wilkie  Collins  is  preeminent  for  the  in- 
genuity  of  his  plots.  Others  depend  little  upon  the  plot,  but  excel 
in  portraiture  of  character.  Dickens  and  Thackeray  are  distinguished 
mainly  for  their  delineation  of  different  phases  of  life.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  unites  an  intricate  plot  with  life-like  painting  of  characters. 


Id  this  section,  on   "Narratives,"  we  have  consid- 
ered :— 

1.  The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Narrative, 

2.  The  IHot  of  a  Narrative, 

3.  The  Qualities  of  a  Plot, 


SEICTIOH   in. 

LETTERS. 

1.  Tlie  Purpose  of  Lietters. 

A  letter  is  a  written  communication  from  one  person 
to  another.  It  is  intended  to  take  the  place  of  a  conversa- 
tion, and  this  purpose  determines  the  form,  the  length,  the 
style,  and  the  general  tone  of  a  letter.  It  is  a  kind  of 
personal  address,  and,  accordingly,  is  less  formal,  and  more 
direct  than  other  forms  of  written  composition. 

The  adjective  epistolary  (from  the  Greek  hiri,  epi,  to,  and  gte'KT^elv, 
stelkin,  to  send)  is  applied  to  correspondence  by  letter.  The  primary 
idea  of  a  letter  is  a  conversation  at  a  distance.  If  this  be  kept  in 
mind,  one  can  scarcely  fail  to  write  appropriately,  if  he  can  converse 
properly  ;  for  a  letter  may  be  familiar  or  reserved,  jocular  or  digni- 
fied, according  to  the  relations  between  the  writer  and  the  one 
addressed. 


SPECIAL  F0BM8  OF  COMPOSITION.  171 


2.  The  Kinds  of  Letters. 

Letters  constitute  the  principal  part  of  written  compo- 
sition. They  are  written  on  every  conceivable  topic,  in 
almost  every  temper  of  mind,  by  and  to  every  class  of 
persons.  Hence  they  are  of  as  many  kinds  as  are  the 
thoughts  and  purposes  of  those  who  write  them.  A  few 
of  the  most  important  kinds  of  letters,  with  the  style 
appropriate  to  each,  may  be  mentioned. 

(1)  Didactic  letters,  designed  for  instruction,  and  often 
almost  as  formal  as  a  treatise,  were  formerly  a  very  popu- 
lar form  of  literature.  The  famous  book  on  Etiquette,  by 
Lord  Chesterfield,  is  in  the  form  of  letters  to  his  son. 
Montesquieu's  Persian  Letters  are  designed  to  convey 
political  instruction. 

This  form  of  composition  was  mucli  employed  by  the  ancients. 
Seneca  and  Pliny  wrote  treatises  in  this  form.  Seneca's  Epistles 
claim  to  be  simply  letters  to  a  friend,  but  they  are  in  reality  disserta- 
tions in  the  epistolary  form  on  moral  subjects  Pliny  discourses  of 
natural  history  in  the  same  way,  and  his  Letters  are  as  elegant  in 
style  as  if  their  substance  had  been  expressed  in  formal  dissertations. 

(2)  News  letters  are  communications  to  newspapers, 
containing  accounts  of  events  in  various  places,  descrip- 
tions of  ceremonies  and  eminent  persons,  and  reports  of  • 
opinions  gathered  from  public  men.  Such  letters  are 
often  of  great  interest,  and  are  sometimes  written  with 
skill  and  taste.  They  should  be  brief,  timely,  and  spright- 
ly, and  written  in  an  easy,  flowing  style. 

Several  of  the  finest  living  writers  are  engaged  in  correspondence 
with  the  best  metropolitan  jor.rnr.ls.    They  make  letter- writing  a 


172  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

profession,  and  devote  themselves  to  it  with  enthusiasm.  Their  let- 
ters are  usually  brilliant  rather  than  profound,  dealing  chiefly  with 
current  events  in  politics,  religion  and  literature.  They  are  often  full 
of  humor  and  fancy,  and  the  predominant  style  is  what  is  sometimes 
called  picturesque,  from  the  graphic  character  of  the  diction. 


(3)  Official  letters  are  communications  between  men  in 
their  public  capacity.  They  should  always  possess  perfect 
clearness,  the  utmost  possible  brevity,  and  a  firm  dignity 
of  tone.  They  should  also  contain  the  usual  terms  of 
courtesy. 

(4)  Letters  of  business  are  of  great  importance  on  ac- 
count of  the  interests  frequently  involved  in  them.  They 
should  be  clear,  brief,  direct  and  gentlemanly.  Every 
thing  irrelevant  to  the  business  in  hand  should  be  ex- 
cluded. They  should  contain  such  reference  to  former 
correspondence  thnt  the  business  may  not  be  confused 
through  personal  failure  of  memory.  Business  men 
usually  file  tlieir  letters,  sometimes  copies  of  those  sent  as 
well  as  those  received,  so  that,  in  a  reply,  the  date  of  the 
letter  answered  often  aids  the  person  addressed  in  recalling 
what  he  said. 


Great  losses  in  business  have  resulted  from  carelessness  in 
correspondence.  Ambiguous  language  may  be  wrested  from  its 
purpose,  and  made  an  excuse  for  delay  or  a  diflerent  action  from  that 
desired.  Hence  no  one  should  be  more  pains-taking  in  acquiring  a 
clear,  concise  style  of  writing  than  the  man  of  business. 

Carelessness  in  spelling,  blunders  in  construction,  or  want  of  taste 
in  the  expression  of  thought,  often  interfere  with  success  in  the  world 
of  business.  The  business  character  of  a  man  or  firm  is  judged  of 
by  strangers  from  the  appearance  of  their  correspondence. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  I73 

(5)  Letters  of  Introduction  are  designed  to  commend  a 
friend  to  another  person  of  one's  acquaintance.  These 
should  ]]ever  be  written  without  forethought,  inasmuch  as 
the  writer,  to' a  certain  extent,  vouches  for  the  character 
of  the  person  introduced. 

Such  letters  are  generally  left  unsealed,  and  the  name  of  the  per- 
son introduced  is  written  on  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of  the  en- 
velope, in  order  that  the  persons,  on  meeting,  may  greet  each  other 
without  embarrassment.  The  name  of  the  person  addressed  is  also 
placed  on  the  envelope  in  the  usual  manner  for  other  letters. 

(6)  Letters  of  friendship  commonly  receive  less  atten- 
tion in  their  composition  than  they  deserve.  They  should 
be  free  from  pedantry  and  egotism.  Their  general  tone  is 
determined  by  the  relation  of  the  parties.  It  is  safest  to. 
be  rather  more  dignified  and  precise  in  a  letter  than  in 
ordinary  conversation  with  our  friends.  Neatness  and 
correctness  are  indispensable  to  a  good  letter,  no  matter 
how  intimate  one  may  be  with  his  friend.  A  plain  hand- 
writing is  as  much  deserved  by  a  father  or  brother  as  by 
an  officer  of  state. 

One  caution  is  worthrememberingin  writing  letters  of  friendship, 
Words  that  are  spoken  in  privacy  reach  no  other  ears  than  those  for 
which  they  were  intended.  Words  that  are  once  written  upon  paper 
may  be  seen  by  many  eyes  for  which  they  were  not  designed.  It  is 
wise,  therefore,  never  to  write  any  thing  which  the  world  might  not 
read  without  causing  mortification  and  regret  to  the  writer  or  the 
person  addressed.  In  addition  to  this,  a  letter  once  sent  cannot  be  re- 
called, and  it  may  not  be  read  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  written. 

(7)  Notes  are  short  letters,  generally  limited  to  a  single 
point  of  business.     They  are  properly  written  on  smaller 


174  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

paper  than  ordinary  letters,  and  in  quality  it  should  be 
plain,  fine  and  neat. 

In  addressing  notes  to  ladies,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  family 

is  entitled  to  the  designation  Miss ,  without  any  Christian  name. 

If  Mr.  Brown  has  three  daughters,  Mary,  Annie,  and  Emily,  the  first 
[Maryj  is  Miss  Brown  ;  the  second.  Miss  Annie  Brown  ;  the  third 
Miss  Emily  Brown.  Taken  together,  they  are  the  Misses  Brown y 
not  the  Miss  Bi'oicns. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  writing  notes,  to  use  the  grammatical  per- 
sons consistently  ;  as,  Mrs.  Brown  presents  her  compliments  to  Mr, 
Smith,  and  solicits  the  pleasure  of  his  [not  your]  company  on  Satur- 
day evening,  the  18th  inst." 

*The  following  are  specimens  of  some  of  the  most  common  forms 
of  notes. 

Invitations. 

(1) 


cdd. 


(2) 

]'t.  <3^   G^.   cyo  t(j.-n  ^4ede'n^   -^-ik  -ted^e-c^  -^ 

]e^^d^o^'^   (^(Qo-ude^ 
Ic^.    3. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  175 

(3) 

€^ne  y/-^  -t^td'l. 

yo    (^^^    '^Z^ 


fLtZ'T^^M.  -e^    07G2J^,    Q!i£.-tue^'^  ■O'n  (J/ ■ued-ct^-t^  e^ue^-t'T^t 


^u^^-^-   4^' 


Replies. 

(1) 

^'i'ld'^'f 


tdd 


(3) 


Aui    'i.'i^-U-i^-Cl^'iiX'J^. 


176  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIG. 

(3) 


Oru^A  JxGa/e-^ 


l^ote  of  Introduction. 

C/Ve-ut   ^l^i^'t'^y  ^U'ne   -/^^  <//rf'^, 

^Jcd.^o'n.  C^^yi^  A^uu-a'id  -tte-A-ccA  y,<xu  ^.-ci'i'i,  €/<f  A-o 
H.-cm  ■cLu4.i/i^-^  A.t4.  d'ta^  ^-i?^/  n^au-i  t?^-^^^  -ui^AA^  -^ 
ed^ee^ff^e^  «c/   a.  ^dd-a't^^i^ /u--ix<i.t  -u-^ 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  177 

3.  Parts  of  a  Letter. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  letter  are:  (1)  the  Superscrip- 
tion, or  introduction ;  (2)  the  Body,  or  substance  of  the 
letter ;  (3)  the  Subscription,  or  closing  expression  and 
signature  ;  and  (4)  the  Address,  or  direction  on  the  enve- 
lope. The  superscription,  subscription,  and  address  will 
now  be  considered  in  order. 

(1)  The  Superscription  of  a  letter  consists  of  (1)  the 
name  of  the  place,  (2)  the  date  of  writing,  and  (3)  the 
designation  of  the  person  addressed ;  as, — 


j2/-en-€'i^-me^ 


(1)  The  name  of  the  place. — This  should  never  be  omitted  if  the 
letter  is  to  go  to  another  town.  It  includes  much  or  little  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case.  Philadelphia  and  other  great  cities  are  so  well- 
known  that  it  is  needless  to  say,  Philadelphia,  Pa,  Small  towns,  and 
even  cities  when  there  are  several  of  the  same  name,  should  be  speci- 
fied by  the  addition  of  the  State;  as,  Madison,  Wis.,  Madison,  Ind., 
Madison,  N.  J.  In  cities,  the  name  of  the  street  and  number  of  the 
house  should  always  bs  given  ;  as,  184  Broadway,  New  York.  Con- 
tractions of  names  should  be  made  distinct.  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.  are  made 
very  much  alike  by  careless  writers.  Even  the  name  of  the  County 
should  be  added,  if  the  place  is  small  or  unknown  to  the  person  ad- 
dressed ;  as  Winfield,  Union  Co.,  Pa,  This  enables  a  correspondent 
to  direct  his  reply  correctly. 

(2)  The  Time. — Every  letter  should  have  a  date.  Business  letters 
especially  ought  never  to  be  written  without  the  month,  the  day  of 
the  month,  and  the  year.  The  date  ought  not  to  be  put  at  the  bot- 
tom, as  is  sometimes  done. 


178  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BEETORIC. 

(3)  The  Designation  of  the  person  addressed  differs  according  to 
our  relation  to  the  parties.  Letters  of  friendship  usuaJly  begin  with 
snch  expressions  as  the  following : 


e<i4.   GfCf4.<i^^i^,4., 


More  formal  letters  begin  as  follows  : 


Letters  addressed  to  public  oflBcere  should  be  quite  formal.    The 
following  are  examples : 

(1) 


(2) 


y^X'ue't'n-ai-  ^z/"  c/^e'n'n<iyu/t>iA€i'n^tz. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  CF  COMPOSITION.  179 

Business  letters  often  have  the  name  of  the  firm  addressed  and 
their  place  of  business,  as  a  part  of  the  designation  ;  as, — 


In  other  letters  the  name  of  the  one  addressed  and  the  name  of 
his  post  office  are  generally  placed  at  the  close  of  the  letter  to  the 
left  and  a  little  below  the  writer's  signature.  This  should  not  be 
neglected. 

The  punctuation  of  the  superscription  is  illustrated  in  the  ex- 
amples. 


(2)  The  Subscription  of  a  letter  consists  of  (1)  the  Term 
of  respect  or  afFection,  and  (3)  the  Signature  ;  as, 


't-lU^C-l^, 


Si^^med   (Q.  c/i^i 


(1)  The  Term  used  in  closing  a  letter  depends  upon  our  relation 
to  the  person  addressed.  Letters  of  friendship  close  with  expressions 
such  as  the  following  : 


180  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC, 

More  formal  expressions  are  : 


^d^vet 


'.<X-Wid. 


O.U4.   ^u/3^^^^  de-i-utz-yi^^ 
<H^4.   H'O-eeZ-i.e-'it^  d^-'i-u-wn-z.. 


(3)   The   Signature  deserves    some  attention.     Married   women 
should  prefix  Mrs,  to  their  name ;  as, — 


/Mr..// 


'7' 


The  first  name  of  her  former  husband  should  be  dropped  by  a 
widow,  and  her  name  before  marriage  should  be  used,  retaining  the 
prefix  Mrs.  ;  as, — 

The  sex  of  the  writer  ought  always  to  be  evident  from  the  sig- 
nature. This  is  of  special  importance  in  writing  to  a  stranger.  The 
sex  may  generally  be  made  known  by  using  the  Christian  name, 
instead  of  the  mere  initials.  It  is  generally  best  to  write  the  first 
name  in  full  in  any  case.  Its  omission  often  leads  to  a  confusion  of 
persons. 

It  is  not  customary  with  people  of  good  taste  to  use  a  ny  title  in 
signing  letters  or  other  documents.  Rev.,  Hon.,  and  Prof.,  are  pre- 
fixed to  the  names  of  gentleman  by  others,  but  never  by  themselves, 
unless  they  are  ill  informed  of  good  usage.  The  same  applies  to 
titles  of  all  Idnds. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION,  181 

(3)  The  Address  secures  the  safe  delivery  of  the  letter, 
and  hence  ought  to  receive  attention.  It  consists  of  three 
parts:  (1)  the  Name,  (2)  the  Title,  and  (3)  the  Residence, 
as, — 


<XUt^-i 


^^ 


(^, 


(1)  The  Name  should  always  be  written  witli  exactness,  without 
any  familiar  trifling.  Nicknames  and  pet  names  ought  never  to  be 
used  in  an  address.  This  part,  of  a  letter  is  always  of  a  business 
nature,  whatever  the  purport  of  the  letter  may  be. 

(2)  The  Title  is  not  always  easily  determined.  Everyman  is  Mr , 
every  married  lady,  Mrs.  ;  every  unmarried  lady,  Miss,  but  some 
claim  more  than  these  common  titles. 

It  is  courteous,  in  addressing  persons,  to  use  their  titles.  No  one  is 
entitled  to  be  called  Esquire  except  gentlemen  of  the  legal  profession 
and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  greater  title  presupposes  the  less.  It 
would  be  in  bad  taste  to  write.  Rev. Charles E.  Brace,  A.  B.,  A.M., 
Ph.D.,  LL.  D.  The  three  titles,  Ph.  D.,  D.D.,  and  LL.  D.,  are  often 
retained  together,  and  the  highest  written  last.  It  is  absurd  to 
duplicate  titles  ;  as,  Br  E.  M.  Jones,  M.B.,  or  Mr.  Thomas  Gray,  Esq. 

Judges,  Members  of  Congress,  and  some  other  officers  of  Govern- 
ment, are  entitled  to  the  prefix  Honorable.  This  extinguishes  the 
title  Esquire  after  the  name,  but  not  literary  titles;  as,  Hon.  P.  E. 
Swift,  LL.D.  Some  insist  that  the  article  "  the"  should  be  used  be- 
fore the  words  Honorable  and  Reverend,  but  this  is  not  the  common 
usage. 

(3)  The  Residence  of  the  person  addressed  should  be  plainly  writ- 
ten out  in  full ,  The  name  of  the  State  ought  not  to  be  abbreviated 
unless  the  abbreviation  is  perfectly  intelligible.  The  street  and 
number  of  the  house  should  be  given,  if  letters  are  likely  to  be 
delivered  by  postmen. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  how  the  address  should  be 
written  on  an  envelope. 


182  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BEETOSIC. 


e^^  §^t>u 


(JC0-7ld'l7l. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  183 


^^^.  <^.  ^.  Mtz^/id^^ 

W^'luii.m<^fM/^ 

.^u^ct^TmTm 

?^v 

c^. 

ofTiAo-t/ticma  ,yu^.    Wth..  Mt^ia(. 

oMa-S  Q^Spi^Tiie' 

1 

^{^/{:/&7im 

c/  oMiJ'i  Mukas. 

184  TEE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 


4.  General  Kules  for  Writing  Letters. 

The  subject  is  of  such  great  practical  importance  that  a 
few  general  directions  may  be  given  in  this  connection. 

(1)  Answer  promptly.  It  is  not  meant  that  eyery  letter 
should  be  answered  at  once.  This  is  often  impossible, 
and  even  undesirable  when  reflection  is  necessary.  The 
principle  should  be  to  reply  without  needless  delay.  Tliis 
is  due  to  every  correspondent  who  deserves  any  attention. 
If  it  be  said  that  this  direction  has  nothing  to  do  with 
composition,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  character 
of  the  letter  is  greatly  affected  by  the  delay  in  writing. 

(2)  Write  every  letter  carefully.  It  is  natural  to  slight 
such  common  and  familiar  things  as  letters,  yet,  on  the 
whole,  there  is  scarcely  any  other  one  form  of  writing  liy 
which  men  are  so  generally  judged  by  their  acquaintances. 
Even  among  educated  men  there  are  comparatively  few 
good  writers  of  letters.  Violations  of  grammar  and  bad 
spelling  often  cost  men  positions  of  honor  and  profit. 

(3)  Express  your  thoughts  with  directness.  Some 
writers  who  are  plain  in  conversation  become  sentimental, 
others  verbose,  others  flowery,  in  their  letters.  Every 
form  of  affectation  should  be  avoided.  A  letter  should  be 
a  natural  expression  of  one's  thoughts  and  feelings. 

4.  Study  neatness  in  folding  and  sealing.  If  the  sheet 
is  note-paper,  fold  No.  1  over  No.  2,  and  then  bring  down 
No.  3,  as  in  the  following  diagram : 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION. 


185 


CO 

1 

6 

6 
1^ 

If  the  sheet  is  letter-paper,  fold  N"o.  1  over  No.  2,  and 
treat  the  folded  sheet  as  in  the  case  of  note-paper,  as 
follows : 


No.  2. 

No.  1. 

186  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

In   this   section,   on    "Letters,"   we   have   consid- 
ered :— 

1,  The  Purpose  of  Lietters, 

2,  The  Kinds  of  Letters. 

3,  The  Parts  of  a  Letter. 

4,  Gene^ral  Rules  for  Writing  Letters, 


SECTIOIT    lY* 

ORATIONS. 

1.  The  Nature  of  an  Oration. 

An  Oration  (from  the  Latin  ordre,  to  speak  in  a  plead- 
ing maimer)  differs  from  other  forms  of  discourse  in  three 
respects :  (1)  it  is  designed  to  be  heard,  not  read ;  (2)  it 
aims  at  persuading  the  mind  of  some  truth  or  to  some 
course  of  action  :  (3)  it  presupposes  an  audience  composed 
of  various  grades  of  intelligence  and  culture.  It  is  not 
the  end  of  an  oration  to  convince  the  nnderstandiiig 
merely.  Conviction  may  be  used  as  a  means  of  persua- 
sion, but,  generally,  an  awakening  of  the  feelings  is  com- 
bined with  the  use  of  facts  and  arguments.  An  oration 
attempts  to  move  the  will  through  the  intellect  and  the 
emotions. 

An  oration  aims  to  realize  the  highest  eloquence.  It  is  tlie 
emotional  element  in  oratory  which  makes  it  truly  eloquent.  This  is 
the  opinion  of  the  greatest  American  orator,  and  his  words  are 
worthy  of  careful  study  by  every  student  of  the  oratorical  art.  Says 
Webster : 


SPECIAL  F0BM8  OF  COMPOSITION.  187 

"  True  Eloquence,  indeed,  does  not  consist  in  speech.  It  cannot  be  brought 
from  far.  Labor  and  learning  may  toil  for  it,  but  they  will  toil  in  vain.  Words 
and  phrases  may  be  marshalled  in  every  way,  but  they  cannot  compass  it.  It 
must  exist  in  the  man,  in  the  subject,  and  in  the  occasion.  Affected  passion, 
intense  expression,  the  pomp  of  declamation,  all  may  aspire  after  it,— they  can- 
not reach  it.  It  comes,  if  it  come  at  all,  like  the  outbreaking  of  a  fountain  from 
the  earth,  or  the  bursting  forth  of  volcanic  fires,  with  spontaneous,  original,  native 
force." 


2.  Kinds  of  Oratory. 

Oratory  has  been  variously  divided  by  rhetoricians. 
Aristotle's  division  is  the  oldest  and,  probably,  the  best. 
He  makes  the  following  threefold  division :  (1)  Delibera- 
tive oratory ;  (2)  Judicial  oratory ;  (3)  Demonstrative 
oratory.     These  require  a  separate  explanation. 

(1)  Deliberative  oratory  includes  most  political  and 
parliamentary  discussion.  Its  themes  are  war,  supplies, 
finance  and  improvement.  Its  aim  is  to  dissuade  from 
certain  measures,  and  exhort  to  othefs.  It  looks  toward 
the  expedient. 

(2)  Judicial  oratory  is  engaged  with  accusation  and  de- 
fence, and  is  the  same  as  forensic.  Its  themes  are  facts 
of  law  and  the  actions  of  men  toward  one  another.  Its 
aim  is  to  persuade  that  injnry  has  or  has  not  been  done. 
It  looks  toward  the  just. 

(3)  Demonstrative  oratory  is  occupied  with  showing 
what  is  right  or  wrong,  true  or  false.  Its  themes  are 
drawn  from  any  branch  of  human  knowledge  in  which 
men  generally  have  an  interest.  Its  aim  is  to  persuade 
the  mind  to  adopt  certain  views.  It  looks  toward  the 
true. 

Many  kinds  of  public  discourse  would  seem  to  belong  to  neither  of 
these  general  divisous.  A  little  reflection,  however,  will  show  that 
every  address  which  deserves  the  name  of  oration  may  be  referred 


188  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

to  some  one  of  these  divisions.  Sermons  are  generally  demon- 
strative, in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  here  used.  They  aim  to 
show  forth  what  is  right  or  wrong,  true  or  false,  in  connection  with 
religion  and  duty,  and  to  persuade  the  mind  to  accept  certain  views. 
Lectures  also  belong  to  this  class  of  orations,  when  they  are  really 
forms  of  oratory.  Sometimes  they  are  simply  essays  or  histories  read 
or  recited  to  an  audience.  When  prepared  for  this  purpose,  they  often 
possess  many  of  the  qualities  of  an  oration,  while  making  the  sub- 
ject-matter most  prominent. 

3.  The  Nature  of  Persuasion. 

As  persuasion  is  the  chief  end  of  an  oration,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  its  nature  be  distinctly  understood.  Without 
entering  upon  a  minute  analysis,  the  two  principal  condi- 
tions of  persuasion  may  be  pointed  out.  These  are  (1) 
Belief,  and  (2)  Feeling. 

(1)  Belief  is  the  first  essential  in  influencing  action. 
Facts  must  be  presented,  arguments  must  be  adduced, 
consequences  must  be  shown,  in  order  to  lead  the  mind  to 
a  resolution.  Hence  eloquence  is  founded  on  knowledge 
and  reason. 

(2)  The  Feelings,  however,  are  the  mainspring  of  ac- 
tion. Knowledge  generally  produces  certain  feelings,  but 
it  is  sometimes  so  coldly  presented  and  so  abstract  in  its 
forms,  that  the  mind  is  not  awakened  to  a  realization  of 
the  truth.  Facts  and  arguments  must  be  so  pressed  upon 
the  mind,  and  their  connection  and  results  so  vividly 
displayed,  that  the  feelings  will  be  aroused.  Hence 
eloquence,  while  founded  on  knowledge,  culminates  m 
feeling. 

The  philosophy  of  Persuasion  is  fully  explained  in  the  "  Science 
of  Rhetoric."  It  is  of  great  importance,  for  all  that  is  peculiar  in  the 
oratorical  manner  of  treating  a  subject,  grows  out  of  the  nature  of 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSTTION.  189 

persuasion.  The  outline  given  above  is  suflacient,  however,  for  the 
purposes  of  this  section.  The  subjects  of  Argumentation  and  Exposi- 
tion are  regarded  as  too  difficult  to  be  introduced  here. 


4.  The  Qualities  of  an  Oration. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  an  oration  and  the  pecu- 
liar end  which  it  has  in  view,  that  its  style  should  be 
neither  that  of  didactic  prose  nor  of  poetry.  It  must  at 
once  inform  the  understanding  and  touch  the  heart.  It 
must  arouse  as  well  as  instruct,  direct  as  well  as  gratify. 
Some  of  the  most  important  qualities  of  an  oration  may  be 
mentioned. 

(1)  Direct  address  is  essential  to  an  oration.  An  es- 
say is  not  addressed  directly  to  any  person,  but  awaits  its 
chance  reader,  while  an  oration  is  for  the  hour  and  the 
audience  which  the  speaker  has  chosen.  Accordingly, 
while  an  essay  may  regard  chiefly  the  subject-matter,  an 
oration  must  ever  hold  in  view  the  present  persons  ad- 
dressed. Directness  of  address  arouses  interest  and  creates 
enthusiasm. 

(2)  Dignity  is  essential  to  most  orations,  and  should  never 
be  sacrificed.  It  is  not  inconsistent  with  perfect  freedom, 
but  freedom  should  never  descend  into  low  familiarity. 
Wit  and  humor  may  pervade  a  discourse,  without  the  ora- 
tor's becoming  a  buffoon.  He  who  would  enjoy  the  respect 
of  an  audeince,  must  himself  sliow  respect  to  his  hearers. 

(3)  Popularity  of  presentation  is  necessary  for  a  mixed 
audience.  Hence  high-sounding  and  rare  words,  abstruse 
arguments,  illustrations  derived  from  remote  or  tech- 
nical sources,  obscure  allusions,  and  enigmatical  figures 
are  out  of  place  in  an  oration.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is 


190  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 

insulting  to  an  audience  to  underrate  their  intelligence, 
and  address  them  with  an  affected  simplicity.  The  best 
thoughts  in  the  best  language  are  not  above  the  average 
comprehension,  if  they  are  amply  illustrated. 

(4)  Figurative  language  is  highly  conducive  to  effect 
in  oratory.  The  imagination  is  the  most  efficient  faculty 
in  eloquence.  Many  who  reason  well  are  not  effective 
orators.  It  is  the  imagination  which  gives  to  thought 
its  garb  of  chaste  and  engaging  imagery.  Caution  is 
required,  however,  that  the  exuberance  of  youthful  fancy 
may  not  obscure  the  branches  of  thought  beneath  the 
luxuriant  foliage  of  expression. 

(5)  Energy  of  style  should  be  more  attended  to  in  an 
oration  than  in  any  other  kind  of  discourse.  The  thought 
should  leap  on  exultingly,  never  showing  signs  of  weariness, 
but  revealing  new  power  at  every  step. 

"  An  eloquent  mind,"  says  Shedd,  "  is  a  mind  under  motion."  It 
is  a  mind  moving  forward,  under  the  influence  of  clear  knowledge 
and  deep  feeling,  with  constantly  accelerated  motion,  and  constantly 
increasing  momentum,  to  a  final  end,  which  is  always  a  practical  one. 
Eloquence  itself,  then,  is  thought  with  an  impulse  in  it,  thought  with 
a  drift  and  rush  in  it.  Eloquence  is,  as  we  instinctively  denominate 
it,  a  flood. 

5.  The  Parts  of  an  Oration. 

Mention  is  made,  on  page  17,  of  the  ancient  division  of 
an  oration  into  six  parts.  This  division  is  mechanical  and 
arbitrary,  for  the  reasons  there  stated.  Keeping  in  mind 
the  fact  that  the  division  is  an  arbitrary  one,  we  may  for 
convenience  distinguish  three  parts  of  an  oration:  (1)  the 
Exordium ;  (2)  the  Discussion  ;  (8)  the  Peroration. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  191 

(1)  The  Exordium  (from  the  Latin  exordlre.  to  begin  a 
web,  to  lay  a  warp)  is  the  introduction.  As  an  oration  has 
a  practical  end,  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  exordium  to  obtain 
for  the  theme  such  ahold  upon  the  hearer's  attention  as  to 
enlist  his  interest  in  the  discussion. 

(2)  The  Discussion  is  the  principal  part  of  the  oration. 
It  ought  to  proceed  according  to  some  plan  previously 
thought  out,  and  conformed  to  the  logical  method  of  pre- 
senting a  subject.  Facts  and  arguments  should  come  first, 
and  the  feelings  of  the  orator  should  not  anticipate  those 
of  his  audience.  The  arguments  should  be  disposed  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  theme,  but  so  as  to  bring  the 
strongest  last.  Everything  ought  to  contribute  to  the  end 
of  the  oration,  and  whatever  does  not  is  irrelevant,  and 
should  be  rejected. 

(3)  The  Pepopatlon  (from  the  Latin  perordre,  to  speak 
through)  is  the  final  summing  up  of  the  oration.  It  should 
be  brief  and  earnest,  full  of  feeling  and  conviction,  yet  not 
out  of  harmony  with  what  the  discussion  warrants.  It 
should  be  clear  and  definite,  and  not  a  mere  vapor  of  senti- 
ment. Every  impression  made  by  the  discussion  should 
be  used  to  advantage  in  the  peroration,  so  that  nothing 
shall  be  wasted  at  the  final  moment  of  decision. 

6.  The  Management  of  the  Feelings. 

As  oratory  depends  for  its  success  upon  a  skillful  man- 
agement of  the  emotions,  some  attention  must  be  given  to 
this  art.     Several  considerations  are  worthy  of  attention. 

(1)  The  causes  of  feeling  must  be  presented  to  the  au- 
dience.   It  will  not  do  to  say,  *'We  ought  to  feel  grateful 


192  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIG. 

for  such  kindness ; "  or,  "  Wo  ought  to  be  enraged  at  such 
treatment."  Men  are  not  moved  to  feeling  by  being  told 
that  the  occasion  requires  feeling.  The  objects  must  be 
described  to  the  imagination.  Beauty,  hideousness,  sub- 
limity, and  other  qualities  of  objects,  when  presented  to 
the  mind,  evoke  corresponding  feelings,  and  these  cannot 
be  aroused  in  any  other  way. 

(2)  The  orator  himself  must  feel  what  he  would  have 
others  feel.  It  is  not  desirable  that  his  feelings  should 
master  him ;  for  this  unmans  him,  and  leaves  him  ineffi- 
cient for  his  work.  Webster  was  always  in  sympathy  with 
the  sentiments  of  his  speeches,  yet  he  maintained  control 
of  his  emotions.  "  He  kept  his  auditor  constantly  in  ad- 
vance of  him,  by  suggestion  rather  than  by  strong  assev- 
eration, by  a  calm  exposition  of  considerations  wliich 
ought  to  excite  feeling  in  the  heart  of  both  speaker  and 
hearer,  not  by  an  undignified  and  theatrical  exhibition  of 
passion  in  himself." 

(3)  The  feelings  may  be  changed  by  the  same  means 
that  arouse  them.  It  would  not  suffice  to  assert  that  a 
state  of  feeling  is  uncalled  for  or  improper.  The  only  way 
to  modify  it  is  to  present  new  considerations  or  exhibit  old 
ones  in  new  lights. 

7.  The  Qualifications  of  an  Orator. 

All  the  qualifications  of  a  perfect  orator  are  rarely  com- 
bined in  one  person.  Some  of  these  are  gifts  of  nature, 
such  as  a  fine  voice,  a  commanding  presence,  a  rich  imagi- 
nation, a  keen  power  of  logical  analysis,  a  sensitive  sym- 
pathetic nature,  responsive  to  every  form  of  human  sufier- 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  VOAfPOSITION.  193 

ing  or  aspiration.  Others  are  acquired  by  study  and 
attentive  practice.  Some  of  these  acquired  qualifications 
we  may  notice  more  at  length. 

A  fine  presence  is  an  important  endowment  for  an  orator,  and  yet 
an  ordinary  physique  ought  not  to  discourage  one  who  possesses  other 
qualifications.  Some,  like  Chatham  and  Webster,  have  been  aided  by 
a  noble  form,  a  powerful  voice,  and  a  personal  magnetism  that  made 
every  look  and  tone  siprnificant.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  unpre- 
possessing may  console  themselves  with  the  ungainliness  of  Demos- 
thenes, the  bad  voice  of  Burke,  the  repulsive  uncouthness  of  Broug- 
ham, and  the  awkwardness  of  Grattan. 

(1)  Command  of  the  subject  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant qualifications  of  an  orator.  The  great  orators 
have  generally  been  men  of  vast  learning. 

As  examples  of  learning  among  orators,  Pitt  may  be  mentioned 
as  conspicuous  for  his  general  attainments,  Burke  for  his  range  of 
political  and  historical  knowledge,  Webster  for  his  mastery  of  the 
principles  of  law,  and  Sumner  for  his  refined  culture.  All  of  these 
were  owners  of  fine  libraries,  and  constant  readers  of  the  best  liter- 
ature. 


(2)  A  knowledge  of  men  is  as  important  to  an  orator  as 
a  knowledge  of  books.  A  writer  may  succeed  well  if  he 
understands  his  subject,  but  an  orator  must  adapt  his 
knowledge  to  the  persons  addressed.  Hence  he  must 
understand  men. 

(3)  Fertility  in  expedients  is  necessary  to  an  orator, 
especially  in  parliamentary  or  forensic  oratory.  The  tac- 
tics of  debate,  the  resources  of  defence  and  the  plans  of 
attack,  must  be  learned  by  studying  the  orations  of  great 
oratoi*s,  and  by  actual  experience  in  the  arena  of  contro- 
versy. 

9 


194  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BRETOBIC. 

(4)  Self-possession  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
qualification  of  an  orator.  Confidence  alone  can  inspire 
confidence.  Facts,  instances,  arguments,  retorts,  must  be 
ever  ready  for  immediate  use.  Opinions  must  be  urged 
boldly  and  fearlessly,  and  yet  in  a  liberal  and  conciliatory 
spirit. 

In  this   section,  ou   "Orations,"  we  liave  consid- 
ered : — 

1,  Tlie  Nature  of  an  Oration* 

2.  The  Kinds  of  Oratory, 

S.  The  Nature  of  l*ersuasion, 

4,  The  Qualities  of  an  Oration, 

5,  The  Parts  of  an  Oration, 

6o  Tfie  Management  of  the  Feelings, 
7.  The  Qualifications  of  an  Orator, 


SECTION    Y. 

POEMS. 

1.  The  Nature  of  a  Poem. 

A  Poem  (from  the  Greek  noiuv,  poiein,  to  make)  differs 
from  other  forms  of  composition  in  the  following  respects  : 
(1)  Its  main  purpose  is  to  please  the  taste;  (2)  it  is  the 
product  of  a  creative  imagination  stimulated  by  emotion ; 
(3)  its  form  of  expression  is  verse. 

(1)  It  aims  to  please  the  tasfe.  Common  prose  composition  aims, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  set  forth  the  truth  according  to  the  requirement 
of  the  subject,  with  only  so  much  regard  to  the  pleasure  afforded  as 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION  195 

may  be  desirable  to  secure  interest  and  satisfaction  with  the  perform- 
ance. Oratorical  composition  is  governed  by  the  requirements  of  the 
subject  and  the  gratification  of  the  hearer,  but  only  in  subordination 
to  the  end  of  moving  the  mind  for  a  practical  purpose.  Poetical 
composition  is  a  fine  art,  aiming  chiefly  to  please,  and  observing  the 
conditions  which  govern  prose  and  oratory  only  as  these  are  necessary 
to  the  gratification  of  good  taste. 

(2)  It  is  a  product  of  imagination.  Other  forms  of  composition 
must  depend  for  their  material  upon  reality.  A  poem  is  a  creation 
of  the  mind  in  the  realm  of  the  ideal.  Its  plan,  its  characters,  its 
scenes,  its  events,  its  diction,  and  its  figures,  are  borrowed  from  the 
conceptions  of  the  artist,  not  from  the  actual  world.  One  of  the 
greatest  masters  of  poetic  art,  Shakespeare,  thus  describes  this  crea- 
tive process : 

"  The  poet's  eye,  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling, 
Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  earth,  from  earth  to  heaven  ; 
And,  as  imagination  bodies  forth 
The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet's  pen 
Tnms  them  to  shape,  and  gives  to  airy  nothings 
A  local  habitation  and  a  name." 

(3)  Its  natural  form  is  verse.  The  reason  lies  in  the  connection 
between  emotion  and  rhythmical  movement.  The  same  principle 
applies  to  poetry  as  to  dancing.  It  is  seen  in  the  youngest  children 
who  can  follow  a  simple  rhyme  or  an  air  in  music.  Rhythm  is  a 
cause  of  emotion,  and  emotion  is  a  cause  of  rhythm. 


2.  Kiuds  of  Poems. 

Poems  have  been  variously  classified,  but  most  writers 
distini,niish  four  species  (1)  the  Lyric;  (2)  the  Epic ;  (3) 
the  Dramatic ;  and  (4)  the  Didactic.  These  with  their 
varieties  may  be  described  as  follows. 

(1)  Lyric  poems  are  effusions  of  feeling  adapted,  as  the 
name  implies,  (from  the  Greek  Xvpa,  a  lyre,)  to  be  set  to 
music.  The  emotion  expressed  by  them  is  usually  simple 
and  intense.  They  employ  a  great  variety  of  meter,  and 
often  change  it,  if  the  sentiment  is  modified.  The  prin- 
cipal varieties  are  mentioned  below. 


196  TEij  i:lements  of  rhetoric. 

(1)  Songs  are  lyric  poems  intended  to  be  sung.  They  are  of  al- 
most every  character,  as  love  songs,  sentimental  songs,  war  songs, 
political  songs,  domestic  songs,  convivial  songs,  national  songs, 
hymns,  psalms,  and  canticles. 

(2)  Odes  are  lyric  poems  not  designed  for  singing,  although  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  song.  Its  elaborate  versifi- 
cation is  a  marked  feature  of  the  ode,  as  Dryden's  ode  on  Alexan- 
der's Feast.  Almost  every  sentiment,  amatory,  political,  martial, 
patriotic,  and  religious,  has  been  expressed  in  the  form  of  odes. 

(3)  Elegies  are  lyrics  of  a  mournful  character.  Sometimes  they  are 
memorial  verses  of  sorrow  over  a  lost  friend,  as  Milton's  Lycidas. 
Sometimes  they  are  of  a  more  general  character,  consisting  mainly  of 
sad  reflections  concerning  the  departed,  as  Gray's  Elegy. 

(4)  Sonnets  are  lyric  effusions  in  which  each  expresses  a  single 
sentiment,  generally  of  personal  feeling.  They  are  sometimes  con- 
nected together  in  thought,  as  Shakespeare's  sonnets.  They  consist 
of  fourteen  lines  of  five  or  five  and  a  half  iambic  feet. 

(2)  An  Epic  poem  is  a  narrative  of  events,  generally 
represented  as  told  by  the  hero  or  some  participant  in  the 
scenes,  and  having  a  plot  of  some  interest.  It  is  the 
longest  of  poetical  compositions,  and  introduces  many 
episodes,  or  subordinate  stories,  to  sustain  the  interest. 
Its  varieties  are  mentioned  below. 

(1)  The  Great  Epic  is  an  account  of  some  heroic  action,  admitting 
supernatural  agency,  and  representing  Fate,  Justice,  Satan,  or  the 
Deity  as  the  hidden  controllers  of  events.  The  plot  derives  i  ts  interest 
from  some  important  transaction  of  heroes  or  supernatural  beings. 
The  "  Iliad  "  of  Homer,  the  "  iEneid  "  of  Virgil,  and  the  "  Paradise 
Lost "  of  Milton,  are  epics  of  this  class  These  have  their  carica- 
ture in  the  Mocic  Epic,  as  "  The  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,"  at- 
tributed to  Homer,  and  "  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  by  Pope. 

(2)  The  Metrical  Romance  is  a  narrative  of  heroic  adventure  of  a 
less  elevated  character.  The  passion  of  love,  which  does  not  appear 
in  the  epic  of  the  higher  type,  is  prominent  in  the  romance.  Ghosts, 
witches,  elves,  and  fairies  take  the  place  of  gods  and  goddesses.  The 
romance  poems  of  Scott,  such  as  "  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  "  and 
"  Marmion,"  are  good  modern  examples  of  the  metrical  romance. 

(3)  The  Metrical  Tale  is  a  short  story  of  love  or  adventure,  told 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  197 

in  verse.  Some  are  elaborate  and  beautiful,  as  Keats'  "  Eve  of  St. 
Agnes."  Others  are  pathetic  and  earnest,  as  Longfellow's  "  Evange- 
line." Still  others  are  full  of  intense  humor,  as  Burns'  "  Tarn 
o'Shanter." 

(4  The  Ballad  is  the  simplest  kind  of  narrative  poem,  a  mere 
metrical  sketch,  sometimes  a  mere  versified  anecdote.  Some  are 
serious,  others  humorous,  others  sentimental.  Macaulay's  "  Horatius 
at  the  Bridge,"  and  "  The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  aie  familiar 
examples. 

(3)  Dramatic  poems  are  designed  to  be  acted  on  the 
stage.  Scenery,  costume,  dialogue,  and  action  combine  to 
reproduce  the  original  events  and  represent  the  characters, 
as  if  really  present.  The  drama  is  the  most  perfect  pre- 
sentation of  either  the  real  or  the  ideal  that  literature  can 
make.     Its  varieties  are  mentioned  below. 

(1)  Tragedy  represents  the  calamitous  events  of  human  life,  with 
the  design  of  arousing  pity  and  fear  in  connection  with  admiration 
of  nobility  and  scorn  of  baseness  in  character.  The  subjects  of 
tragedy  are  various.  Shakespeare  has  given  us  a  great  variety  of 
tragic  situations  in  Hamlet,  Macbeth,  Julius  Caesar,  Romeo  and 
Juliet,  and  other  tragedies,  all  of  which  deserve  careful  study. 

(2)  Comedy  is  an  attempt  to  represent  the  ludicrous  side  of  life. 
It  has  many  forms,  embracing  the  lowest  personal  caricature  and  the 
most  refined  humor.  When  the  dialogue  is  low  and  the  characters 
are  of  inferior  rank,  it  is  called  a  Farce.  When  giants,  fairies,  and 
monsters  are  introduced,  it  is  called  a  Mask.  When  the  scenes 
mingle  the  tragic  and  the  comic,  and  songs  are  interspersed,  it  is 
called  a  Melodrama. 


(4)  Didactic  poems  aim  to  instruct  as  well  as  to 
please.  They  are,  therefore,  less  purely  poetical  than  the 
kinds  already  described.  They  are  often  dry  and  prosaic 
as  compared  with  other  kinds  of  poetical  composition, 
but  many  of  them  are  full  of  interest  from  their  ingenious 
mode  of  treatment.    Considered  as  versified  essays,  they  are 


198  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

among  the  finest  compositions  in  our  language.     They 
are  on  every  kind  of  subject. 

« 

The  great  variety  ot  didactic  poetry  may  be  seen  from  the  instances 
under  the  following  headings  : 

(1)  Technical,  or  such  as  explain  certain  arts  ;  as.  Virgil's 
"  Georgics,"  a  treatise  on  agriculture,  Horace's  ''Art  of  Poetry," 
Pope's  "  Essay  on  Criticism,"  Armstrong's  "  Art  of  Preserving 
Health." 

(2)  Philosophical,  proposing  theories  of  life  or  nature  ;  as,  Pope's 
"  Essay  on  Man,"  Youngs  "  Night  Thoughts,"  Tupper's  "  Prover- 
bial Philosophy,"  Wordsworth's  "  Excursion." 

(3)  Moral,  exhorting  to  nobler  life  by  presenting  motives ;  as,  Pol- 
lock's "  Course  of  Time,"  Bryant's  "  Thanatopsis,"  Crabbe's  "  Tales 
of  the  Hall." 

(4)  iVIeditative,  illustrating  some  precept  by  the  beauties  of  nature 
or  the  pleasures  of  mind ;  as  Thomson's  "  Seasons,"  Cowper's  "  Task," 
Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,"  Campbell's  "  Pleasures 
of  Hope,"  Rogers'  "  Pleasures  of  Memory."   • 

(5)  Satirical,  ridiculing  the  follies  of  men,  or  shaming  them  to  do 
better  ;  as,  Johnson's  "  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes,"  Pope's  "  Dun- 
ciad,"  Gifford's  "  Baviad,"  and  "  Maeviad,"  Butler's  "  Hudibras,"  and 
Byron's  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers." 


3.  The  Method  of  Poetry. 

As  a  poem  aims  at  different  results  from  a  prose  compo- 
sition, so  it  requires  a  different  method.  As  its  end  is  to 
please,  it  employs  the  means  of  pleasing  with  less  reserve 
than  any  other  kind  of  writing.  Some  of  the  special  char- 
acteristics of  a  poem  may  be  mentioned. 

(1)  A  poem  should  be  sensuous  in  its  style.  By  this  is 
meant  that  it  should  not  deal  in  abstractions,  but  should 
abound  in  imagery  and  words  descriptive  of  external  ob- 
jects. Metaphor  and  personification  are  means  of  impart- 
ing this  sensuous  quality  to  style.  Epithets,  for  this  reason, 
are  more  freely  used  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 


8P-ECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION:  199 

(2)  A  poem  should  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  hu- 
man interest.  As  man  is  always  of  interest  to  man,  charac- 
ter,  passion,  fortitude,  aspiration,  devotion  and  affection 
are  of  interest,  and  are  proper  elements  of  a  poem.  Plot, 
when  properly  constructed,  also  has  an  absorbing  interest. 
Whatever  is  merely  local  is  not  well  adapted  to  poetry. 
Like  every  other  form  of  fine  art,  poetry  is  for  all  times 
and  all  places. 

(3)  A  poem  should  observe  harmony  in  all  its  parts. 
The  ideas,  figures,  characters,  scenes,  and  language,  should 
harmonize  throughout.  This  requires  that  everything 
in  the  poem  be  fitted  to  create  and  sustain  a  certain  kind 
of  feeling,  without  any  jar  or  interruption. 

(4)  A  poem  should  aim  at  the  ideal.  It  is  the  province 
of  art  to  attain  to  the  ideal,  that  is,  the  perfect  of  its  kind. 
The  poet  has  the  whole  world  of  reality  to  select  from,  and 
he  may  combine  all  graces  in  his  scenes  and  characters. 
It  is  not  sufficient,  therefore,  to  represent  the  real.  As  an 
artist,  the  poet  must  surpass  nature. 

(5)  A  poem  is  allowed  a  certain  freedom  of  language. 
As  the  poet's  aim  is  to  produce  emotion,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  construct  his  sentences  with  the  same  rigid  directness 
that  is  required  in  prose.  He  produces  his  effects  as  much 
by  the  accumulation  of  stimulating  images  as  by  direct 
statement.  Some  of  the  liberties  of  poetical  style  are  men- 
tioned below. 

The  chief  varieties  of  Poetic  License  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Inversions  are  common  ;  as, — 

"  While  stands  the  Colisevm,  Rome  shall  stand." 
"  Feiv  and  sTwrt  were  the  prayers  we  said." 


200  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

(2)  Abbreviations,  such  as  are  improper  in  prose,  are  used  in 
poetry  ;  as,  eve,  morn,  overlook,  'tis,  'twas,  etc. 

(3)  Superfluous  Pronouns  are  freely  used ;  as,— 

"  The  wind,  it  waved  the  willow  boughs." 
"  The  boy— oh  I  where  was  A^  /" 

(4)  Ellipsis  is  quite  common  ;  as, — 

"  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash." 
"Tf%o  knows  bis  heart,  is  truly  wise." 

(5)  The  Substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another  often  oc- 
curs in  poetry  ;  as, — 

'•'■  Abrupt  and  Umd,  a  snmmons  shook  the  ^te." 
"They  fall  mceesHve  and  successive  rise." 


4.  Versification. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses.  As  a  poem  is 
properly  a  versified  composition,  the  elements  of  this  art 
are  explained  in  this  connection.  The  subject  will  be 
considered  under  three  heads :  (1)  Meter ;  {2)  Rhyme  ; 
and  (3)  Stanzas. 

(1)  Meter  (from  the  Greek  fierpov,  metron,  a  measure) 
is  the  arrangement  into  verse  of  definite  measures  of 
sounds,  definitely  accented.  In  English,  meter  depends 
almost  wholly  upon  the  accent,  and  not,  as  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  upon  the  quantity  of  the  vowels.  There  are  as 
many  varieties  of  meter  as  there  are  methods  of  arranging 
feet  into  verses. 

A  Foot  is  a  group  of  syllables  taken  together,  and  having  an  ac- 
cent. The  unaccented  syllables  are  here  marked  ^^,  the  accented 
syllables,  .  The  following  table  exhibits  the  metrical  feet  most 
common  in  English. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION.  201 

The  spondee,  amen. 

The  iambus,  delay. 

The  trochee,  envy. 

The  dactyl,  monument. 

The  anapaest,  dvdldnche. 

The  amphiambus,  denial. 

A  Verse  (from  the  Latin  vertere,  to  turn)  ;s  a  single  line  of  poetry. 
It  is  made  up  of  feet,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  kind  and  number 
of  feet  in  a  line.  The  following  is  a  table  of  the  number  of  feet  com- 
monly used  in  English  verses. 

Monometer,  ( — ^)  1  foot. 

Dimeter,  (— ^  |  — ^)  2  feet. 

Trimeter,  (— ^  |  — _  |  — ^)  3  feet. 

Tetrameter,  (— _  |  — ^  |  — ^  |  — ^)  4  feet. 

Pentameter,  (— ^  |  — _  j  — ^  |  — _  |  — ^)  5  feet. 

Hexameter,  (— ^  |  — ^  |  — _  |  — ^  |  — ^  |  — _)  6  feet. 

Combining  the  name  of  the  foot  and  the  name  for  the  number  of 
feet  in  a  line,  the  verse  may  be,  for  example,  iambic  pentameter,  con- 
taining five  iambic  feet ;  dactylic  hexameter,  containing  six  dactylic 
feet,  etc. 

The  Heroic  Verse  consists  of  five  iambic  feet ;  as, — 
"They  serve  |  as  well  |  who  6n  |  ly  stand  |  and  wait." 

The  Alexandrine  Verse,  which  was  once  used  as  a  heroic  meter 
but  has  gone  out  of  use,  consists  of  six  iambic  feet ;  as— 

"  The  black  |  and  dark-  |  some  nights  |  the  bright  |  and  glad-  |  some  days." 

An  Acatalectic  Verse  is  one  which  contains  all  the  syllables  re- 
quired according  to  the  scheme  to  which  it  belongs.  A  verse  is  Cat- 
alectic  when  deficient ;  Hypercatalectic,  when  redundant. 

Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme.  It  is  usually  the  iambic 
pentameter.  Most  of  our  heroic  and  dramatic  poetry,  including  Mil- 
ton's epics  and  many  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  is  written  in  blank 
verse. 


(2)  Rhyme  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  rime)  is  a  corres- 
pondence of  sound  at  the  end  of  verses,  or  sometimes  at 
intervals  in  the  verse.    It  was  not  employed  in  ancient 


202  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIC. 

poetry,  but  is  used  in  almost  all  modern  verse.  It  is  (1) 
alliterative,  (2)  assonantal,  and  (3)  consonantal.  Mascu- 
line, feminine,  triple,  middle,  and  sectional  rhymes  also 
are  distinguished. 


(1)  Alliterative  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  first  letters 
of  certain  words.  It  was  the  only  kind  of  rhyme  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry.     The  following  is  an  example  : 

"  There  preached  a  pardoner 
As  he  a  priest  were, 
Bmwghi  forth  a  ftuU 
With  many  i>ishop8  seals."— Piers  Plowman. 

Although  no  longer  a  regular  constituent  of  English  verse,  al- 
literation is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  modern  poetry  ,  as, — 

"  Lying  silent  and  «ad  in  the  afternoon  shadow  and  sunshine." 

"  Like  a  grjowworm  g-olden 
In  a  rfell  of  c?ew." 


(3)  Assonantal  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  vowels  at  the 
end  of  two  lines  ;  as, — 

"  If  she  seem  not  so  to  me, 
What  care  I  how  good  she  be  ? " 

(3)  Consonantal  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  vowel  and 
the  final  consonant  or  consonants  in  the  rhyming  syllables.  This  is 
the  most  common  rhyme  in  English  poetry.  The  following  is  an 
example  ; 

"  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold.'" 

Masculine  rhymes  are  single  rhymes,  such  as  those  in  the  last 
two  examples. 

Feminine  rhymes  are  double,  the  last  two  syllables  of  the  line 
rhyming  with  the  last  two  of  its  mate  ;  as, — 

"  Straight  mine  eye  hath  cauo:ht  new  ^leas-tires. 
Whilst  the  landscape  round  it  meas-uresy 


SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  COMPOSITION:  203 

Triple  rhymes  have  three  corresponding  syllables  ;  as, — 

"  Kings  may  be  blest,  but  Tarn  was  glo-ri-ous. 
O'er  all  the  ills  of  life  victo-n-OM«." 

Middle  rhymes  are  correspondences  of  sound  at  the  middle  and 
close  of  a  verse    as, — 

"  Brave  martyr'd  chief/  no  more  our  grief. 
For  thee  or  thine  shall  flow  : 
Among  the  blest  in  Heaven  ye  rest, 
From  all  your  toils  below." 

Sectional  or  Line  rhyme  is  a  consonance  occurring  in  the  same 
line  ;  as, — 

*'  Wilt  stood  for  skill,  and  law  obeydd  lust : 
Might  trod  down  right :  of  king  there  was  no  fear." 


(3)  A  Stanza  (from  the  Italian  stanza,  a  room,  a  com- 
partment) is  a  division  of  a  poem  containing  two  or 
more  verses.  The  word  is  properly  applied  to  what  is 
commonly,  but  incorrectly,  called  a  verse.  Each  line  is  a 
verse,  but  a  stanza  contains  at  least  two  lines.  There  are 
a  great  many  kinds  of  stanza  in  English  poetry.  Some  of 
the  most  common  are  explained  below. 

A  Distich  or  Couplet  consists  of  two  verses. 

A  Triplet  consists  of  three  verses. 

A  Quatrain  is  a  stanza  of  four  lines  rhyminpr  alternately. 

The  Rhyme-Royal  is  a  seven  line  stanza,  invented  by  Chaucer. 
It  is  composed  of  iambic  pentameter  lines,  the  first  four  being  a  qua- 
train, the  fifth  repeating  the  rhyme  of  the  fourth,  and  the  last  two  ( 
being  a  rhyming  couplet.  i 

The  Spenserian  Stanza  derives  its  name  from  its  inventor,  Ed- 
mund Spenser,  who  used  it  in  his  "  Faerie  Queene."  It  consists  of 
nine  lines,  the  first  eight  being  iambic  pentameter,  the  last  one  an 
iambic  hexameter ;  as, — 

"  Lo  I  the  man,  whose  Muse  whilome  did  maske, 
As  time  her  taught,  in  lowly'  Shepheards  weeds, 
Am  now  enforst,  a  far  unfitter  taske, 
For  trumpets  stern  to  change  mine  eaten  reeds, 


204  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

And  sing  of  knights  and  ladies  gentle  deeds  ; 

Wliose  praises  having  slept  in  silence  long, 

Me,  all  too  meane,  the  sacred  Muse  areeds, 

To  blazon  broade  emongst  her  learned  throng : 

Fierce  warres  and  faithfull  loves  shall  moralize  my  song." 

The  Ottava  Rima  consists  of  eight  heroic,  or  iambic  pentameter 
verses,  the  first  six  rhyming  alternately  ;  the  last  two,  in  succession. 

The   Terza   Rima  consists  of  heroics,  witli  three  rhymes  at  in- 
tervals. 

The  Sonnet  Stanza  is  very  elaborate  in  its  structure.  It  consists 
of  two  divisions,  called  the  Major  and  the  Minor.  The  Major  divi 
sion  contains  eight  lines,  and  is  called  the  Octaxe.  The  Minor  division 
contain  six  lines,  and  is  caXXedi  th.e  Sestette.  The  Octave  i?  composed 
of  two  quatrains.  The  parts  are  joined  together  by  a  close  gram- 
matical structure,  and  the  rhymes  are  various.  The  scheme  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  diagram  of  Wordsworth's  Sonnet  on 
Sonnets. 


"  Scorn  not  the  Sonnet,  critic  !  you  have  frowned 
Mindless  of  its  jiis^t  honors  ;  with  this  key 
Shakespeare  unlocked  his  heart ;  the  melody 
Of  this  small  lute  gave  ease  to  Petrarch's  wound ; 
A  thousand  times  this  pipe  did  Tasso  sound : 
CamoSns  soothed  with  it  an  exile's  grief: 
The  Sonnet  glittered  a  gay  myrtle  leaf 
Amid  the  cypress  with  which  Dante  bound 
His  visionary  brow ;  a  glow-worm  lamp,  971  \ 

It  cheered  mild  Spenser,  called  from  FaSry  land  lol  ~ 

To  struggle  through  dark  ways ;  and,  when  a  damp  nj 

Fell  round  the  path  of  Milton,  in  his  hand  12!  _ 

The  thing  became  a  trumpet,  whence  he  blew 
Soul-animating  strains— alas  1  too  few." 


^1 

47       3 

a 


The  principal  Hymn  Meters  are  as  follows: 


SPECIAL  F0BM8  OF  COMPOSITION.  205 

The  Long  Meter  Stanza. 

3- 1 1- 1 3- 1 T- 

The  Common  Meter  Stanza. 

The  Short  Meter  Stanza. 

I  I- I ^- 1  ^- 
I  ^-  U-  I  ^- 

In  all  these  hymn  meters  various  kinds  of  ^rhyme  are  employed. 
Sometimes  the  lines  rhyme  alternately,  sometimes  in  succession,  and 
sometimes  the  first  and  third  verses  are  unrhymed. 

Ill    this  section,  on    "Poems,**    we    have    consid- 
ered :— 

1,  The  Nature  of  a  Poem, 

2,  The  Kinds  of  Poems. 

3.  The  Method  of  Poetry, 

4.  Versification. 


(^? 


aV 

^J^ 


w 


-^^ 


^J?-^, ^y, 


To  the  Teacher. 

The  following  exercises  are  classified  to  correspond  to  the  chap- 
ters and  sections  of  the  text  in  the  preceding  pages.  They  are,  pos- 
sibly, more  numerous  than  will  be  found  needful  for  some  classes. 
The  teacher  should  use  his  own  judgment  in  the  selection  of  parts  for 
class-room  drill.  It  is  advised  that  some  exercises  of  each  kind  be 
studied  under  the  personal  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  student 
should  be  required  to  depend  upon  his  memory  for  the  principles 
stated  in  the  text. 

The  bold-faced  numbers  refer  to  the  pages  of  the  text  to  which 
the  exercises  correspond. 


CHAPTER    i. 

INVENTION. 

SECTION    I. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A   SUBJECT. 

1.  Selecfc  from  the  following  list  such  subjects  as  are 
suitable  In  themselves  for  a  composition,  applying  the 
rules  on  page  7. 


1.  The  Earth. 

2.  War  and  Fame. 

3.  Tendencies. 

4.  Prospects. 

5.  Idleness. 


6.  Domestic  animals. 

7.  Habits. 

8.  The  Revolutionary  War. 

9.  Kindness. 
10.  Studies. 


210 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 


11.  Economj.- 

12.  Early  Rising-. 

13.  Curiosity. 

14.  Waste. 

15.  Respect. 


16  Birds. 

17.  Milton. 

18.  Happiness. 

19.  Energy. 

20.  Beauty 


2.  Select  from  the  following  list  such  suhjects  as  are 
suited  to  yourself  as  a  writer,  applying  the  rules  on 
page  8. 


1.  Temperance. 

2.  The  Origin  of  Langua^. 

3.  Art  is  Superior  to  Nature. 

4.  Philosophy  of  Education. 

5.  Cats, 

6.  The  Results  of  the  Crusades. 

7.  The     Elements    of     Shake- 

speare's Art. 

8.  Ancient  Oratory. 

9.  The  Age  is  Degenerate. 

10.  American  Poetry. 

11.  Modern  Legislation, 


13.  Tlie  Philosophy  of  Locke. 

13.  The  Value  of  Herbert  Spen- 

cer's Writingft 

14.  Indolence. 

15.  The  Wonders  of  Electricity 

16.  Conversation  as  a  Fine  Art. 

17.  Man  is  a  Progressive  Being. 

18.  Roman  Lavr. 

19.  Music  in  Germany. 

20.  Lalwr  not  Essential  to  Suc- 

cess. 


3.  Select  from  the  following  list  such  suhjects  as  are 
suitable  to  any  occasion  that  you  can  think  of,  and  men- 
tion the  occasion  to  which  they  would  be  suitable,  apply- 
ing the  rules  on  page  9, 


1.  The  Benefits  of  the  Bible  to 

Man. 

2.  The  Necessity  of  Reform  in 

Public  Life. 

3.  The   Scientific    Discourses  of 

Huxley. 

4.  The    Adventures   of,  a    Lost 

Dog. 

5.  The  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 

pire. 

6.  The  Wit  and  Humor  of  Amer- 

ica. 


7.  The  Sin  of  Profanity . 

8.  The  Character  of  Hamlet. 

9.  Who  will  be  the  next  Presi- 

dent? 

10.  The    Prosjxicts    of    Foreign 

War. 

11.  True  Greatness  in  Man. 

12.  The  Aim  of  Life. 

13.  The  Grandeur  of  Self-Sacri- 

fice. 

14.  Ambition  in  Woman. 

15.  Macaulay  as  an  Orator. 


EXEBGISES  IN  INVENTION. 


211 


4.  Try  to  adapt  such  subjects  in  the  above-  lists  as  have 
been  found  inappropriate  in  themselves,  or  for  the  writer, 
or  for  the  occasion,  following  the  directions  on  pages 
9,10. 


SECTION    IL 


THE  ACCUMULATION  OF  MATERIALS. 


1.  Note  down  such  thoughts  on  the  following  subjects 
as  occur  to  you  from  observation.     See  page  12. 


1.  A  Morning  Landscape. 

2.  A  Thunder  Storm. 

3.  A  Locomotive. 

4.  The  Elements  of  Beauty  in  a 

Rose. 

5.  The  Evidences  of  Design  in  a 

Tree. 

6.  The  Decoration  of  a  Room, 

7.  Household  Government. 


8.  The  Public  Buildings  of  the 

Place. 

9.  Life  Among  the  Lowly. 

10.  The  Enjoyments  of  School 

Life. 

11.  The    Manufacture    of    Car- 

riages. 

12.  The  Life  of  a  Teacher. 


2.  Note  down  such  thoughts  on  the  following  subjects 
as  occur  to  you  by  reflection.     See  page  13. 


1.  The    Duties    of   Children    to 

Parents. 

2.  The  Proper  Treatment  of  Do- 

mestic Animals. 

3.  The  Uses  of  Beauty. 

4.  What  we  Owe  to  Government. 

5.  The   Duties   of   an  American 

Citizen. 

6.  The  Advantages  of  Universal 

Peace. 


7.  The  Difficulties  of  Acquir- 

ing an  Education. 

8.  The  Incentives  to  Study. 

9.  The     Value    of     Business 

Knowledge. 

10.  The'  Uses  of  Adversity. 

11.  The  Benefits  of  the  Electric 

Telegraph. 

12.  The  Proper  Uses  of  Money, 


212 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 


3.  Note  down  such  thoughts  on  the  following  subjects 
as  may  be  gathered  by  reading.     See  page  14. 


1.  The  Life  of  Lafayette. 

2.  The  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

3.  The  Trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for 

Treason. 

4.  The  Battle  of  Saratoga. 

5.  The  Character  of  Alexander 

the  Great. 

6.  The  Telephone. 

7.  The  Invention  of  Printing. 

8.  Tlie  Death  of  Joan  of  Arc. 

9.  The    Childhood    of    George 

Washington. 
10.  The  Causes  of  the  American 
Kevolution. 


11.  The  Poetical  Works  of  Wal- 

ter Scott. 

12.  The  Invention  of  the  Tele- 

scope. 

13.  The  Old  Age  of  Milton. 

14.  The  History  of  Slavery. 

15.  The  Political  Life  of  Daniel 

Webster. 

16.  Astrology. 

17.  Alchemy. 

18.  The  Battle  of  Hastings. 

19.  The  Corn  Laws  of  England. 

20.  Trial  by  Ordeal. 


4.  Note  down  such   thoughts  as  you  may  collect  by 
conversation  on  the  following  subjects. 


1.  The  Present  Kings  of  Europe. 

2.  The  Prospects  of  War  in  Eu- 

rope. 

3.  The  Next  Governor    of    the 

State. 

4.  The    Next  President  of  the 

United  States. 

5.  The  Condition  of  the  Laboring 

Classes  as  Compared  with 
that  of  Laborers  Ten  Years 
Ago. 

6.  The  Mode  of  Electing  a  Presi- 

dent of  the  United  States. 

7.  The  Best  Mode  of  Electing  a 

President.  , 

8.  The  Dress  of  Ladies  Twenty 

Years  Ago. 


9.  The    Mode  of   Obtaining  a 
Patent. 

10.  What  is  a  Strike  ? 

11.  How  are  Bocks  Made? 

12.  Who  are  the  Leading-  Editors 

in  the  United  States  ? 

13.  What  aro  the  Advantages  of 

a  College  Course  ? 

14.  The  Solar  System. 

15.  The  Motions  of  the  Moon. 

16.  The  Source  of  the  Sun's  Heat, 

17.  Why  and  How  do  we  Pay 

Taxes? 

18.  Who  Edit  the  Leading  Mag- 

zines  ? 

19.  Who  are  the  Officers  of  the 

National  Government  ? 

20.  The  Kinds  of  Money  in  Use. 


EXERCISES  IN  INVENTION.  213 

SECTION   in. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIALS. 

1.  Criticise  and  improve,  if  possible,  the  arrangement 
of  materials  in  the  following  plans,  applying  the  principles 
stated  on  pages  16-31. 

I.  On  Manners. 

Introduction.  First  impressions  are  lasting  ;  most  people  judge 
by  external  appearance. 

1.  Various  forms  of  manner:  stiff,  formal,  cold,  polite,  reserved, 
timid,  gentle,  self-possessed,  etc. 

2.  True  politeness  founded  on  a  benevolent  feeling. 

3.  The  manners  should  be  a  true  index  to  the  character,  otherwise 
they  are  hypocritical. 

4.  Without  a  proper  foundation,  polished  manners  are  worthless. 

5.  Grace  in  action  and  words,  as  well  as  in  feeling. 

6.  A  mistaken  notion  that  rough  manners  prove  honesty  of 
character. 

7.  Learning,  or  knowledge,  does  not,  of  necessity,  give  us  gocd 
manners. 

Conclusion.  Good  manners  command  esteem  and  affectioD,  and 
bring  many  other  advantages. 

II.   On  Agriculture. 

Introduction.  Difference  between  natural  and  artificial  occupa- 
tions. 

1.  Agriculture  the  primitive  occupation  of  our  first  parents. 

2.  Cultivation  of  various  crops  a  source  of  mental  exercise  and 
pleasure. 

3.  Variety  of  soils,  drainage,  rotation  of  crops. 

4.  The  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture. 

5.  Agriculture  a  mark  of  civilization. 

6.  Systems  of  farming,  improvement  of  the  land,  etc. 

7.  Precariousness  of  the  occupation. 

Conclusion.  The  profits  of  farming,  and  the  condition  of  the 
farmer  in  life. 


214  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

III.  On  Costume. 

Introduction.     The  infinite  variety  of  nature.     Art  an  imitator. 

1,  Much  taste  and  good  sense  may  be  displayed  in  dress. 

2.  Grecian  and  Roman  costumes. 
,    3.  Oriental  modes  of  dress. 

4.  Dress  of  our  ancestors  in  England,  Germany  and  adjacent  parts 
of  Europe. 

5.  The  modern  costumes. 

6.  Costume  regulated  partly  by  climate,  partly  by  fashion. 

7.  Colors  should  be  assorted  and  not  glaring. 

Conclusion.  A  certain  attention  to  dress  is  proper,  but  it  should 
not  engross  too  much  of  our  time. 

IV.  On  Commerce. 

Introduction.  The  many  and  various  ways  by  which  a  nation's 
welfare  is  promoted  :  a  strong  religious  feeling,  a  high  tone  of  moral- 
ity, a  generally  diffused  education,  and  commercial  intercourse. 

1.  Commerce  a  special  blessing. 

2.  The  antiquity  of.  Name  the  leading  commercial  nations  of 
ancient  times. 

3.  In  modern  times :  Venetians,  Genoese,  Portuguese,  Dutch, 
English,  and  Americans. 

4.  Mention  some  of  the  commodities  exchanged. 

5.  The  advantages  from  this  mutual  intercourse. 

C.  How  does  commerce  civilize  mankind  ?  Diffusing  intelligence, 
distributing  comforts  and  luxuries,  creating  friendships  between 
nations,  rendering  wars  unprofitable. 

7.  The  discoveries  owing  to  commerce  ;  of  America,  and  other 
geographical  discoveries. 

8.  Condition  of  those  countries  which  neglect  commerce  :  China, 
Japan,  etc. 

Conclusion.  Commerce  is  a  great  civilizing  power,  and  ought  to 
be  encouraged. 

V.  On  Good  Humor. 

Introduction.  The  variety  of  dispositions ;  the  grave,  the  gay,  the 
serious,  the  witty,  the  humorous,  etc. 

1.  The  ancient  notion  of  humor,  as  shown  by  the  origin  of  the 
word. 


EXERCISES  IN  INVENTION,  215 

2.  Modern  definition  of  humor,  and  of  good  humor.  [See  Dic- 
tionary.] 

3.  Is  this  state  of  mind  natural  or  acquired  ?  and,  if  acquired, 
how? 

4.  Arguments  in  favor  of  go'od  humor  :  its  effects  upon  others  and 
ourselves. 

5.  Good  humor  not  silliness,  but  compatible  with  good  sense. 

G.  Is  it  possible  for  the  morose  and  gloomy  to  become  good- 
humored? 

7-  How  is  the  change  to  be  effected  ? 

8.  The  example  shown  by  the  good-humored. 

Conclusion.  The  quality  frequently  required,  attainable  by  all, 
and  of  great  advantage. 

VI.  On  Exercise, 

Introduction.  Certain  principles  observable  through  the  whole 
range  of  nature  ;  these  worthy  of  imitation  ;  nature  always  moving  ; 
wind,  water,  planets,  etc. 

1.  Exercise  one  of  these  principles  ;  applicable  to  both  mind 
and  body, 

2.  Explain  this  analogy, 

3.  Excess  defeats  the  purpose,  and  hence  injurious. 

/    4,  Things  not  used  become  rusty  and  unfit  for  use.     So  with 
human  powers. 

5.  All  the  faculties  and  powers  should  be  exercised. 
Conclusion.     Exercise  should  be  regular,  moderate,  general,  and 
thus  both  body  and  mind  are  kept  in  health. 

VII.   On  Newspapers. 

Introduction.  The  natural  desire  of  man  to  know  and  be  known. 
Assumes  many  ways  of  showing:  itself.     Newspapers  one  way. 

1 .  NeAvpapers  are  current  records  of  events. 

2.  At  first  mere  statements  of  facts,  as  the  old  Roman  bulletins. 
Afterwards  remarks  and  comments  on  men  and  measures  were 
added. 

3.  The  first  newspax)ers  in  the  English  language. 
4-  The  first  newspapers  in  America. 

5.  The  number  of  newspapers  now  published. 

6.  General  character  of  modern  newspapers. 

7.  Influence  of  the  press  upon  society. 


216  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIC. 

8.  Freedom  of  the  press, — what  it  is,  and   how  it  should   ho 
limited. 

Conclusion.    The  advantage  of  living  in  an  age  of  newspapers. 


VIII.  On  Printing. 

Introduction.  Various  forms  of  language  :  spoken,  written, 
printed.  The  order  of  their  use  corresponds  to  man's  social  develop- 
ment. 

1.  When  printing  was  invented. 

2.  Various  claimants  for  the  honor  :  Fust,  Guttenburg,  Schaeffer, 
etc. 

3.  By  whom  introduced  into  England  ?  An  account  of  Caxton's 
press. 

4.  Improvement  upon  writing. 

5.  The  impulse  it  gave  to  human  thought. 

6.  Difficulties  of  the  early  printers. 

7.  The  results  of  the  printing  press;  religious,  political,  literary. 
Conclusion.     Great  perfection  of  the   art  now.     Stereotyping. 

The  future  of  the  art. 


IX.  On  Attention. 

Introduction.   Enumerate  the  most  important  powers  of  the  mind  : 
reason,  imagination,  memory,  will,  attention. 

1.  Define  and  illustrate  attention. 

2.  Indispensable  to  the  performance  of  any  great  work. 

3.  The  consequences  of  inattention. 

4.  Memory  is  dependent  upon  attention. 

5.  Attention  is  a  habit  that  may  he  acquired.     Examples :  the 
watch-maker,  the  philosopher,  the  student. 

6.  Attention  a  gradual  growth. 

7.  All  great  men  are  remarkable  for  their  power  of  attention. 
Conclusion.     Attention  will  increase  when  we  are  interested  in 

anything;  hence  attention  may  be  cultivated  by  awakening  an  in- 
terest in  what  we  do. 


X.  On  Falsehood. 

Introduction.     A  natural  opposition  between  the  true  and  the 
false. 


EXERCISES  m  INVENTION.  217 

1.  Various  forms  of  falsehood  :  lying,  cheating,  fraud,  equivo- 
cation, etc. 

2.  Falsehood  is  detested  by  every  one. 

3.  The  consequences  of  falsehood. 

4.  The  untrustworthiness  of  one  who  sometimes  makes  false  state- 
ments. 

5.  The  motives  for  falsehood  :  to  gratify  selfishness,  to  hide  faults, 
to  cover  other  false  statements. 

6.  The  habit  begins  in  little  departures  from  the  truth  :  fibs, 
•white  lies. 

7.  Falsehoods  in  the  end  the  source  of  harm  only. 
Conclusion.     Truthfulness  is  always  noble  and  safe  ;  falsehood, 

always  base  and  dangerous. 


XI.   On  Traveling". 

Introduction.     The  clearness  of  knowledge  gained  by  sight, 

1.  The  consequent  utility  of  traveling. 

2.  A  quick  and  eager  mind  necessary  to  a  traveler. 

3.  Various  purposes  of  travel :  business,  health,  pleasure,  etc. 
All  may  be  combined  with  intelligent  observation. 

4.  The  world  greatly  indebted  to  great  travelers  :  for  their  enter- 
prise in  visiting  strange  lands,  their  faithfulness  of  observation,  their 
clearness  and  accuracy  of  description. 

5.  Some  of  the  great  travelers  and  their  works  :  Marco  Polo, 
Captain  Cook,  Sir  John  Franklin,  Mr.  Livingstone,  Bayard  Taylor. 
H.  M.  Stanley. 

6.  Descriptions  and  pictures  a  source  of  enjoyment  to  those  who 
cannot  travel. 

7.  The  wonders  of  our  own  land. 

8.  Advantages  of  a  good  education  to  a  traveler. 

Conclusion.  While  all  should  travel  who  can,  they  should  pre- 
pare themselves  by  reading  to  see  to  advantage,  and  should  aim  to 
know  something  of  their  own  country  before  going  abroad. 


XII.   A  Journey. 

introduction.     The  purpose  of  the  journey  and  the  party. 

1.  Description  of  the  persons  belonging  to  the  party. 

2.  The  start  :  the  incidents  at  the  depot,  ail-aboard. 

3.  The  people  in  the  train  :  their  peculiarities  and  conduct. 

10 


218  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  EHETOJilC. 

4.  The  towns  passed  through. 

5.  The  general  appearance  of  the  country. 

6.  The  place  visited  :  its  location,  size,  people,  public  places,  his- 
toric associations,  etc.  • 

7.  The  return. 

Conclusion.     The  general  impression  left  by  the  journey. 

2.  After  some  practice  in  criticising  the  plans  given 
above,  apply  the  principles  of  aiTangement  to  the  thoughts 
gathered  by  observation,  reflection,  reading,  and  conversa- 
tion in  the  last  section. 


CHAPTER    U. 

STYLE. 

SBGTIOH    I. 
DICTION. 

I.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Purity,  looking  in  the  dictionary  for  all  doubtful  words, 
and  applying  the  principles  given  on  pages  28-33. 

i.  The  assistance  was  welcome,  and  timelily  afforded. 
2   He  bought  his  coat  on  tick. 

3.  Omv  folks  are  away  from  home. 

4.  I'll  be  back  to  rights. 

5.  He  is  shaky  on  that  doctrine. 

6.  He  was  an  extra  genius,  and  attracted  much  attention. 

7.  For  want  of  employment,  he  stroamed  idly  about  the  streets. 

8.  I  wot  not  who  has  done  this. 

9.  Methir^ks  I  am  not  mistaken. 

10.  Smith  and  those  of  that  ilk  will  rejoice. 

II.  I  disremember  having  met  you. 

12.  A  new  candidate  for  public  honors  is  now  on  the  tapis. 

13.  He  was  led  to  the  abattoir  of  political  life. 

14.  There  was  a  difficulty  betwixt  them,  I  guess. 

15.  He  was  yclept  Samuel  amongst  the  youngsters. 

16.  You  are  beholden  to  him  as  a  party  who  has  been  commoded. 

17.  All  the  people  at  the  dance  belong  to  the  beau  monde,  as  may 
he  seen  at  a  cowp  d'oeil. 

18.  He  made  a  big  steal  from  the  Government. 

19.  That  house  was  recently  burglarized. 

20.  His  divisions  were:  Firstly,  the  Causes ;  secondly,  the  Results, 
etc. 


220  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

21.  A  cablegraphic  dispatch  was  recently  received. 
23.  The  issuance  of  edueationaUstic  theories  will  be  contrary  to 
the  expectations  of  their  authors. 

23.  His  heighth  was  six  feet. 

24.  His  co-temporaries  were  anxious  for  his  repute, 

25.  The  authenticity  of  the  book  is  now  established. 

2.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Ppoppiety,  using  the  dictionary  in  all  doubtful  cases, 
and  keeping  in  mind  the  principles  stated  on  pages 
33-37. 

1.  He  «iamZ«  upon  secarity,  and  will  not  liberate  him  until  it  be 
obtained. 

2.  He  is  worthy  of  praise  for  his  observation  of  filial  duty. 

3.  He  disperses  favors  on  every  side. 

4.  He  would  not  go,  tcithout  his  brother  could  be  \i\Q  comrade. 

5.  I  guess  you  mean  to  speak  respectably  to  your  seniors. 

6.  Those  scandals  have  robbed  hira  of  his  chara/^ter. 

7.  Four  friends  besides  John  were  present. 

8.  '•  My  friend,"  said  the  excited  driver,  "  you  have  a  right  to  turn 
and  give  me  half  the  road." 

9.  He  made  a  resolution  to  correspond  to  his  brother  twice  a 
week. 

10.  I  am  averse  of  that  occupation. 

11.  He  lost  his  avocation  by  idleness. 

12.  He  took  notice  to  the  fact. 

13.  I  differ  with  most  persons  on  some  points  of  doctrine, 

14.  He  \Bfree  o/many  common  faults. 

15.  He  bestowed  a  beautiful  gift  to  his  brother. 

16.  He  demeaned  himself  by  scandalizing  his  friends. 

17.  You  sing  like  John  does,  but  look  as  Charles,  when  he  was 
your  age. 

18.  He  mseris  his  authority  without  thinking. 

19.  He  will  acquire  rewards,  if  he  does  not  arrive  at  celebrity. 

20.  I  know  what  course  I  shall  follow,  and  what  side  I  shall  pur- 
sue. 

21.  Jogeph  will  gain  the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  June. 

22.  It  is  aggravating  to  have  a  couple  of  colds  in  succession. 

23.  Conscientiousness  reproves  us  when  we  are  wrong. 

24.  Inebriation  is  a  ruinous  vice. 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  221 

3.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to  Pre- 
cision, using  a  dictionary  or  a  work  on  synonyms  when 
necessary,  and  keeping  in  mind  the  principles  stated  on 
pages  37-43. 

1.  A  student  is  sometimes  encouraged  by  a  little  praise. 
3.  I  have  suffered  remorse  ever  since  I  sold  my  violin. 

3.  He  has  formed  a  resolution  to  try  to  be  better. 

4.  Henry  regards  his  want  of  memory  a  great  injury  to  his  mind. 

5.  Excessive  use  of  wine  is  a  bad  custom. 

6.  On  being  reprimanded,  the  truant  avowed  his  guilt, 

7.  His  arguments  have  great  heamness  with  his  friends. 

8.  Whitney  discovered  the  cotton-gin. 

9.  He  occupies  a  whole  house. 

10.  This  obstacle  cannot  be  a  real  difficulty. 

11.  The  speeclies  of  these  men  are  inciting  unpleasant  feelings. 

12.  He  supplicated  his  friend  to  aid  him. 
13/  The  Iliad  or  Odyssey  is  a  noble  epic. 

14.  Rectify  bad  habits,  and  amend  mistakes. 

15.  He  asserted  his  readiness  to  comply  with  my  request. 

16.  Exile  evil  thoughts  from  the  heart. 

17.  The  treasurer  abdicated  his  office. 

18.  The  father  kindly  absolved  his  son,  when  he  confessed  his 
fault. 

19.  Self-degradation  is  the  first  essential  of  a  religious  spirit. 

20.  Our  lesson  to-day  is  not  so  arduous  as  some  previous  ones  have 
been. 


SECTION   11. 

SENTENCES. 


1.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Concord,  keeping  in  mind  the  principles  stated  on  pages 
45-53. 


22-Z  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIG. 

1.  The  niechauisiu  of  clocks  and  watches  were  totally  unknown  a 
few  centuries  ago. 

2.  In  the  conduct  of  Parmenio  a  mixture  of  wisdom  and  folly 
were  very  conspicuous. 

3.  The  inquisitive  and  curious  is  generally  talkative. 

4.  Great  pains  needs  to  be  taken  with  these  exercises. 

5.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  United  States  have  greatly 
increased  in  the  last  century. 

6.  Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons. 

7.  The  aquaria  is  filled  with  beautiful  fishes. 

8.  There  is  phenomena  that  have  not  been  observed. 

9.  He  or  you  is  sure  to  be  present. 

10.  They  have  fit  long  and  bravely. 

11.  He  laid  down  in  the  shade,  where  we  formerly  had  set. 

12.  "  The  Lives  of  the  Poets  "  were  written  by  Dr.  Johnson. 

13.  One  of  the  most  trying  things  that  is  known  to  life,  is  to  suf- 
fer alone  and  unjustly. 

14.  You  think  you  shall  go  to  the  city,  then  ? 

15.  If  you  wish,  I  shall  visit  you. 

16.  They  hoped  that  this  would  happen  to  you  and  I. 

17.  liCt  he  and  you  consider  the  question  before  complying. 

18.  Four  horses  who  were  splendidly  caparisoned,  passed   the 
door. 

19.  The  gentlemen  and  carriages  which  we  saw,  have  disappeared. 

20.  John  was  more  lovely  in  disposition  than  any  disciple  of  whom 
we  know  anything. 

21.  Charles  is  the  tallest  of  his  three  brothers. 

22.  There  is  no  nobler  career  than  an  honest  lawyer. 

23.  She  looked  beautifully  in  her  pure  white  dress  and  with  the 
single  red  rose  in  her  hair. 

24.  He  who  knowingly  does  wrong,  must  feel  contemptibly. 

25.  I  have  hitherto  regarded  thee  as  my  friend,  but  now  I  am 
doubtful  of  your  friendship. 

26.  It  was  deserving  to  have  been  said  that  there  was  still  hope. 

27.  My  father  loveth  flowers,  but  he  loves  his  children  best. 

28.  It  has  been  declared  that  the  earth  did  not  move  about   the 
sun. 

29.  They  naturally  prefer  to  stand  where  they  would  have  long 
ago,  if  it  were  not  for  their  mistakes. 

30.  The  season  has  passed  more  rapidly  than  we  expected  it  to 
have  passed. 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  223 

2.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Clearness,  applying  the  principles  stated  on  pages  54:'51l, 

1.  Thus  I  have  fairly  given  you,  sir,  my  own  opinion  as  well  tis 
that  of  a  great  majority  of  both  houses  here,  relating  to  this  weighty 
affair;  upon  which  I  am  confident  you  may  surely  reckon. 

2.  It  may  be  proper  to  give  some  account  of  those  practices,  an- 
ciently used  on  such  occasions,  and  only  discontinued  through  the 
neglect  and  degeneracy  of  later  times. 

3.  These  forms  of  conversation  by  degrees  multiplied  and  grew 
strong. 

4.  The  Emperor  refused  to  convert  at  once  the  truce  into  a  de- 
finitive treaty. 

5.  Fields  of  corn  form  a  pleasant  prospect :  and  if  the  walks  were 
a  little  taken  care  of  that  lie  between  them,  they  would  display  neat- 
ness, regularity  and  elegance. 

6.  He  labored  to  involve  his  minister  in  ruin,  who  had  been  the 
author  of  it. 

7  It  is  the  custom  of  the  Mahometans,  if  they  see  any  written  or 
printed  paper  upon  the  ground,  to  take  it  up,  and  lay  it  aside  care- 
fully, as  not  knowing  but  it  may  contain  some  piece  of  their  Alcoran. 

8.  It  is  true  what  he  says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point. 

9.  However,  the  miserable  remains  were,  in  the  night,  taken  down. 

10.  Mr.  Black  called  a  surgeon,  who  had  a  leg  to  be  amputated. 

11.  Entering,  with  the  key  in  his  hand,  he  shut  the  door,  and 
put  it  in  his  pocket. 

12.  James  told  his  brother  that  he  would  have  to  black  his  boots. 

13.  The  captain  sternly  denied  that  he  had  used  the  offensive 
words  in  the  newspaper,  which  the  editor  had  put  into  his  mouth. 

14.  He  returned  the  book  when  he  drove  up  in  the  carriage  that 
he  borrowed. 

15.  The  captain  of  the  steamer  was  drowned,  and  so  was  his 
daughter.  She  was  laden  with  tropical  fruit,  and  her  loss  is  esti- 
mated at  eighty  thousand. 

16.  Alice  told  her  mother  that  she  was  going  to  get  something 
nice  for  her  at  the  store,  and  she  ought  to  go  along. 

17.  "The  Ironsides  at  Fort  Fisher  "  is  a  graphic  account  of  the 
capture  of  that  fort  by  an  eye-witness. 

18.  Mr.  Brown  informed  his  nearest  neighbor  that  his  wheat  was 
much  more  promising  than  his. 

19.  The  impunity  with  which  this  has  been  and  is  carried  on  has 
degraded  rational  conversation  which  ought  to  be  taught  every  child , 


224  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

held  in  reverence  by  every  young  man,  and  regarded  the  greatest 
charm  of  social  intercourse  into  a  farce. 

20.  As  Glaucus  found  the  object  of  his  adoration  that  tore  him 
from  his  frivolous  companions  in  lone  [a  yoimg  lady],  so  Bulwer 
found  his  in  the  exercise  of  his  genius. 

3.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Unity,  applying  the  principles  stated  on  pages  59-61. 

1.  The  Britons,  daily  harassed  by  cruel  inroads  from  the  Picts, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence  ;  who  consequently 
reduced  the  greater  part  of  the  island  to  their  own  power ;  drove  the 
Britons  into  the  most  remote  and  mountainous  parts  ;  and  the  rest  of 
the  country,  in  customs,  religion,  and  language,  became  wholly 
Saxon. 

2.  We  must  not  imagine  that  there  is,  in  true  religion,  any  thing 
which  clouds  the  mind  with  sullen  gloom  and  melancholy  austerity, 
(for  false  ideas  may  be  entertained  of  religion,  as  false  and  Imperfect 
conceptions  of  virtue  have  often  prevailed  in  the  world,)  or  which 
derogates  from  that  esteem  which  men  are  generally  disposed  to 
yield  to  exemplary  virtues. 

3.  Hume's  "  Natural  Religion  "  called  forth  Dr.  Beattie's  (author 
of  the  Minstrel)  able  work. 

4.  After  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba,  and  landing  on  the  coast 
of  France,  he  advanced  as  rapidly  as  possible  towards  Paris,  and  on 
the  way  was  met  by  the  troops  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Ney, 
who  had  sworn  to  bring  him  back  in  an  iron  cage,  but  now  saluted 
him  as  Emperor. 

5.  The  various  combinations  of  grouping,  of  situation  with  regard 
to  each  other,  placing  them  in  a  permanent  relation  of  friendship  or 
hostility,  of  sympathy  or  of  antipathy,  of  peace  or  war,  of  interchange 
of  religions,  of  manners,  of  civilization,  complete  the  work,  and 
give  that  impulse,  that  progressive  movement,  which  is  the  trait 
whereby  the  historical  nations  are  recognized. 

6.  The  sun  approaching  melts  the  snow,  and  breaks  the  icy  fetters 
of  the  main,  where  vast  sea-monsters  pierce  through  floating  islands, 
with  arms  that  can  withstand  the  crystal  rock  ;  whilst  others,  that 
of  themselves  seem  great  as  islands,  are,  by  their  bulk  alone,  armed 
against  all  but  man,  whose  superiority  over  creatures  of  a  size  and 
force  so  stupendous,  should  make  him  mindful  of  his  privilege  of 
reason  ;  and  force  him  humbly  to  adore  the  great  CJomposer  of  those 
wondrous  frames,  and  the  Author  of  his  own  superior  wisdom. 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE,  225 

7.  To  this  succeeded  the  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the 
restoration,  and  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  cor- 
rui)t  our  language  ;  which  last  was  not  like  to  be  much  improved 
hy  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the  court  of  King  Charles  II.  ; 
either  such  who  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  who  had 
been  altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  those  fanatical  times  ; 
or  young  men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  company  ;  so  that 
the  court  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  propriety  and  correctness 
of  speech  was  then,  and  1  think  has  ever  since  continued,  the  wors'; 
school  in  England  for  that  accomplishment,  and  so  will  remain  till 
better  care  be  taken  in  the  education  of  our  young  nobility,  that 
they  may  set  out  into  the  world  with  some  foundation  of  literature, 
in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns  of  politeness, 

8.  Under  the  stately  nave  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city,  where  the 
aspiring  liombard,  or,  rather,  Italian  architecture  had  lifted  the  roof 
to  a  majestic  height  yet  unequaled  in  Italy  even  by  Gothic  assist- 
ance, and  supported  on  tall  harmonious  pillars,  even  now  the  noblest 
model  of  the  Italian  Basilica  expanded  into  the  Latin  cross;  where 
over  the  altar  hovered  the  vast  and  solemn  picture  of  our  Lord,  with 
the  Virgin  on  one  side,  St.  John  on  the  other,  in  which  Cimabue 
made  the  last  and  most  splendid  effort  of  the  old  rigid  Byzantine  art 
to  retain  its  imperiled  supremacy;  and  thus  Latin  Christianity 
seemed  to  assert  its  rights  against  Teutonic  independence  before 
their  final  severance ;  beneath  these  auspices  met  the  most  august 
assembly,  as  to  the  numbers  and  rank  of  the  prelates,  and  the  ambas- 
sadors of  Christian  kings,  which  for  centuries  had  assumed  the 
functions  of  a  representative  senate  of  Christendom. 

4.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Energy,  applying  the  principles  stated  on  pages  63-66. 

1.  Thought  and  language  act  and  react  upon  each  other  mu- 
tually. 

2.  By  a  multiplicity  and  variety  of  words,  the  thoughts  and  senti- 
ments are  not  set  off  and  accommodated  :  but,  like  David,  dressed  out 
and  equipped  in  Saul's  armor,  they  are  encumbered  and  oppressed. 

3.  These  points  have  been  illustrated  in  so  plain  and  evident  a 
manner,  that  the  perusal  of  the  book  has  given  me  pleasure  and 
satisfaction. 

4.  I  hope  this  is  the  last  time  I  shall  ever  act  so  imprudently. 

5.  The  combatants  both  fell  dead  upon  tlie  field  together  with 
one  another. 


226  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

6.  Thouorh  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  still  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune. 

7.  Indulging  ourselves  in  imaginary  enjoyments,  often  deprives 
us  of  real  ones. 

8.  The  old  inform  the  young,  and  the  young  may  animate  those 
who  are  advanced  in  life. 

9.  By  what  I  have  already  expressed,  the  reader  will  perceive 
the  business  which  I  am  about  to  proceed  upon. 

10.  Charity  breathes  long  suffering  to  enemies,  courtesy  to  stran- 
gers, habitual  kindness  towards  friends. 

11.  These  arguments  were,  without  hesitation,  and  with  great 
eagerness,  laid  hold  of. 

12.  Tlie  complication  of  the  old  laws  of  France  had  given  rise  to 
a  chaos  of  confusion. 

18.  It  unfortunately  happens  that  our  reporter  was  engaged  else- 
where, when  the  first  performance  took  place  ;  and  we  are  therefore 
unable  to  give  any  report  of  the  performance ;  but,  for  all  that,  we 
have  heard  that  the  performance  gave  the  greatest  satisfaction, 

14.  The  writings  of  Buchanan,  and  especially  his  "  Scottish  His- 
tory," are  written  with  strength,  perspicuity  and  neatness. 

15.  I  was  forced  to  go  home  partly  by  force  and  partly  by  stealth. 

16.  It  was  founded  mainly  on  the  entire  monopoly  of  the  whole 
tirade  with  the  colonies. 

17.  Tlie  history,  of  necessity,  became  in  a  great  degree,  for  the 
most  part,  a  parliamentary  one. 

18.  I  went  home  full  of  a  great  many  reflections. 

19.  There  needs  no  more  than  to  make  such  a  registry  only  vol- 
untary, to  avoid  all  the  difficulties  that  can  be  raised,  and  which  are 
not  too  captious  or  too  trivial  to  take  notice  of. 

20.  This  reproach  might  justly  fall  on  many  of  the  learned  of 
that  age,  as,  with  less  excuse,  it  has  often  done  upon  their  ancestors. 

5.  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to 
Harmony,  applying  the  principles  stated  on  pages  67-10. 

1.  'Twas  thou  that  soothedst  the  rough  rugged  bed  of  pain. 

2.  He  then  bscame  king  ;  but  no  one  who  had  known  him  be- 
lieved that  he  would  make  a  good  king. 

3.  The  river,  again  gaining  strength,  flows  more  swiftly. 

4.  It  was  as  glorious  a  scene  as  I  have  ever  seen. 

5.  The  effect  of  the  concluding  verb,  placed  where  it  is,  is  most 
striking. 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  227 

6.  Thou  form'dst  me  poor  at  first  and  keep'st  me  so. 

7.  After  the  moet  straiglitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a  Phari- 
see. 

8.  But  tlie  power  of  Greek  radiance  Goethe  could  give  to  his  hand- 
ling of  nature,  and  nobly  too,  as  any  one  who  will  read  his  "  Wan- 
derer " — the  poem  in  which  a  wanderer  falls  in  with  a  peasant  wo- 
man and  her  child,  by  their  hut,  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  a  temple 
near  Cuma — may  see. 

9.  Every  nature,  you  perceive,  is  either  too  excellent  to  want  it, 
or  too  base  to  be  capable  of  it. 

10.  On  this  occasion  the  question  gave  rise  to  much  agitation,  and 
soon  after  absorbed  every  other  consideration. 


SECTION    III 
PARAGRAPHS. 


The  teacher  may  easily  improvise  exercises  on  the  con- 
struction of  paragraphs  by  reading  from  some  book,  and 
having  the  student  arrange  the  sentences  into  paragraphs. 
The  student's  paragraphing  may  then  be  compared  with 
that  in  the  book.  The  principles  stated  on  pages  71-75 
should  be  kept  in  mind. 


SECTION    lY. 
FIGURES. 

1.  !N;ame  the  figures  given  below,  and  point  out  their 
source  of  value,  keeping  in  mind  the  definitions  and  exam- 
ples on  pages  81-90. 


2J>8  THE  ELEMENTS  OB'  RHETORIC. 

1.  lie  deserves  the  palm. 

2.  Like  the  Aurora  Borealis  of  their  native  sky,  the  poets  and 
historians  of  Iceland  not  only  illuminated  their  own  country,  but 
flashed  the  light  cf  their  genius  through  the  night  which  hung  over 
the  rest  of  Europe. 

3.  For  Painting,  mute  and  motionless, 
Steals  but  one  partial  glance  from  time  ; 
But  by  the  mighty  actors  brought 
Illusions  wedded  triumph  come  ; 

Verse  ceases  to  be  airy  naught. 
And  Sculpture  to  be  dumb. 

4.  He  is  fond  of  his  bottle, 

5.  And  it  came  to  pass  at  noon  that  Elijah  mocked  them,  and  said, 
"  Cry  aloud  ;  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he  is  talking,  or  lie  is  pursuing, 
or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepetb,  and  must  be 
awaked." 

6.  I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie  : 

He  leans  upon  his  hand — his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death  but  conquers  agony, 
And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low. 

7.  In  my  affection  to  my  country  you  find  me  ever  firm  and 
invariable.  Not  the  solemn  demand  of  my  person,  not  the  ven- 
geance of  the  Amphyctionic  council,  not  the  terror  of  their  threaten- 
ings,  not  the  flattery  of  their  promises,  no,  nor  the  fury  of  those 
accursed  wretches,  whom  they  roused  like  wild  beasts  against  me, 
could  tear  this  affection  from  my  breast. 

8.  Ye  toppling  crags  of  ice  ! 

Ye  avalanches,  whom  a  breath  draws  down 

In  mountains  overwhelming,  come  and  crush  me  ! 

9.  Chivalry  delighted  in  outward  show,  favored  pleasure,  multi- 
plied amusement,  and  degraded  the  human  race  by  an  exclusive 
respect  for  the  privileged  classes  ;  Puritanism  bridled  the  passions, 
commended  the  virtues  of  self-denial,  and  rescued  the  name  of  man 
from  dishonor.  The  former  valued  courtesy  :  the  latter  justice. 
The  former  adorned  society,  by  graceful  refinements ;  the  latter 
founded  national  grandeur  on  universal  education.  The  institutions 
of  Chivalry  were  subverted  by  the  gradually-increasing  weight  and 
knowledge  and  opulence  of  the  industrious  classes;  the  Puritans, 
rallying  upon  those  classes,  planted  in  their  hearts  the  undying 
principles  of  democratic  liberty. 

10.  Like  the  ocean,  whose  shores  when  deserted  by  the  tide  mark 
out  the  extent  to  which  it  sometimes  flows,  so  Homer's  genius,  when 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  009 

ebbing  into  the  fables  of  the  "  Odyssey,"  plainly  discovers  how  vast 
it  once  must  have  been. 

11.  Life  is  a  sea,  how  fair  its  face  ! 

How  smooth  its  dimpling  water's  pace  ! 

12.  I  was  a  lovely  tree  in  thy  presence,  Oscar,  with  all  my 
branches  round  me  ;  but  thy  death  came  like  a  blast  from  the  desert, 
and  laid  my  green  head  low :  the  spring  returned  with  its  showers, 
but  no  leaf  of  mine  arose. 

13.  The  final  and  permanent  fruits  of  liberty  are  wisdom,  mod- 
eration, and  mercy.  Its  immediate  effects  are  often  atrocious  crimes, 
conflicting  errors,  skepticism  on  points  the  most  clear,  dogmatism 
on  points  the  most  mysterious. 

It  is  just  at  this  crisis  that  its  enemies  love  to  exhibit  it.  They 
pull  down  the  scaffolding  from  the  half-finished  edifice  ;  they  point 
to  the  flying  dust,  the  falling  bricks,  the  comfortless  rooms,  the 
frightful  irregularity  of  the  whole  appearance,  and  then  ask  in  scorn, 
where  the  promised  splendor  and  comfort  are  to  be  found. 

14.  Life  bears  us  on  like  the  stream  of  a  mighty  river.  Our  boat 
at  first  glides  down  the  narrow  channel,  through  the  playful  mur- 
muring of  the  little  brook  and  the  winding  of  its  grassy  border. 
The  trees  shed  their  blossoms  over  our  young  heads,  the  flowers  on 
the  brink  seem  to  ofier  themselves  to  our  young  hands  ;  we  are 
happy  in  hope,  and  we  grasp  eagerly  at  the  beauties  around  us — but 
the  stream  hurries  on,  and  still  our  hands  are  empty. 

15.  But,  Mr,  Speaker,  the  gentleman  says  we  have  a  right  to  tax 
America  !  Oh !  inestimable  right !  Oh !  wonderful,  transcendent 
right,  the  assertion  of  which  has  cost  this  country  thirteen  provinces, 
six  islands,  one  hundred  thousand  lives,  and  seventy  millions  of 
money. 

16.  The  Comet !    He  is  on  his  way, 

And  singing  as  he  flies  ; 
The  whizzing  planets  shrink  before 

The  specter  of  the  skies  ; 
Ah  !  well  may  regal  orbs  burn  blue. 

And  satellites  turn  pale  ; 
Ten  million  cubic  miles  of  head ! 

Ten  billion  leagues  of  tail ! 

17.  Yes,  noble  Galileo,  thou  art  right,  "It  does  move.     Bigots 

may  make  thee  recant  it,  but  it  moves,  nevertheless The 

Inquisition  may  seal  thy  lips,  but  they  can  no  more  stop  the  prog- 
ress of  the  great  truths  propounded  by  Copernicus,  and  demon- 
strated by  thee,  than  they  can  stop  the  revolving  earth. 


230  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETOBIC. 

18.  Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world. 

19.  O  gentle  sleep, 
Nature's  soft  nurse ! 

20.  The  legendary  age  was  a  past  that  never  was  present. 

2.  Criticise  the  following  faulty  figures,  applying  the 
rules  stated  on  pages  91,  93. 

1.  There  is  not  a  view  of  human  nature  that  is  not  suflacient  to 
extinguish  the  seeds  of  pride. 

3.  The  colonies  were  not  yet  ripe  to  bid  adieu  to  British  connec- 
tion. 

3.  I  am  glad  to  hear  there  are  no  weightier  objections  against 
that  reverend  body  planted  in  this  city. 

4.  Boyle  was  the  father  of  chemistry,  and  the  brother  of  the  Earl 
of  Cork. 

5.  Now  from  my  fond  embrace,  by  tempests  torn, 
Our  other  column  of  the  state  is  borne  ; 

Nor  took  a  kind  adieu,  nor  sought  consent. 

6.  A  volcano  is  called  by  Cheever,  "  That  wonderful  old  furnace 
where  the  hand  of  God  works  the  bellows." 

7.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the  thickest 
gloom. 

8.  Since  the  time  that  reason  began  to  bud,  and  put  forth  her 
shoots,  thought,  during  our  waking  hours,  has  been  active  in  every 
breast,  without  a  moment's  suspension  or  pause.  The  current  of 
ideas  has  been  always  moving.  Tlie  wheels  of  the  spiritual  engine 
have  exerted  themselves  with  perpetual  motion. 

9.  Eaton,  Davenport,  and  five  others  were  the  seven  pillars  for 
the  next  House  of  Wisdom  in  the  wilderness.  In  August,  1639,  the 
seven  pillars  assembled,  possessing  for  tlie  time  full  power. 

10.  If  no  authority,  not  in  its  nature  temporary,  were  allowed  to 
one  human  being  over  another,  society  would  not  be  employed  in 
building  up  propensities  with  one  hand,  which  it  has  to  curb  with 
the  other. 

11.  We  are  constantly  called  upon  to  observe  how  the  noxious 
passions,  which  spring  up  in  the  heart  like  weeds  in  a  neglected 
garden,  are  dissipated  by  the  light  of  truth. 

12.  We  must  keep  the  ball  rolling  until  it  becomes  a  thorn  in 
the  side  of  Congress, 


EXEBGI8ES  IN  STYLE.  231 

13.  The  death  of  Cato  has  rendered  the  Senate  an  orphan. 

14.  The  following  are  the  words  of  Tamerlane  the  Great  to  Baja- 
jet.  Emperor  of  the  Ottomans  :  "  Where  is  the  monarch  who  dares 
resist  us?  Where  is  the  potentate  who  does  not  glory  in  being 
numbered  amonof  our  attendants?  As  for  the6,  descended  from  a 
Turcoman  sailor,  since  the  vessel  of  thy  unbounded  ambition  has 
been  wrecked  in  the  gulf  of  thy  self-love,  it  would  be  proper  that 
thou  shouldst  take  in  the  sails  of  thy  temerity,  and  cast  the  anchor 
of  repentance  in  the  pool  of  sincerity  and  justice,  which  is  the  pool 
of  safety  ;  lest  the  tempest  of  our  vengeance  make  thee  perish  in  the 
sea  of  the  punishment  thou  deservest. 

15.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head. 

16.  Shakespeare  did  not  mean  his  great  tragedies  for  scarecrows, 
as  if  the  nailing  of  one  hawk  to  the  barn  door  would  prevent  the 
next  coming  down  souse  into  the  hen-yard.  No,  it  is  not  the  poor 
bleaching  victim  hung  up  to  moult  its  draggled  feathers  in  the  rain 
that  he  wishes  to  show  us.  He  loves  the  hawk-nature  as  well  as  the 
hen-nature ;  and,  if  he  is  unequaled  in  anything,  it  is  in  that  sunny 
breadth  of  view,  that  impregnability  of  reason,  that  looks  down 
upon  all  ranks  and  conditions  of  men,  all  fortune  and  misfortune, 
with  the  equal  eye  of  the  pure  artist. 

17.  The  man  who  has  no  rule  over  his  spirits,  possesses  no  anti- 
dote against  poisons  of  any  sort.  He  lies  open  to  every  insurrection 
of  ill-humor  and  every  gale  of  distress.  Whereas  he  who  is  em- 
ployed in  regulating  his  mind,  is  making  provision  against  all  the 
accidents  of  life.  He  is  erecting  a  fortress  into  which,  in  the  day  of 
sorrow,  he  can  retreat  with  satisfaction. 

18.  To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays, 
The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  praise. 

19.  A  torrent  of  superstition  consumed  the  land. 

20.  The  Alps, 

The  palaces  of  nature,  whose  vast  walls 
Have  pinnacled  in  clouds  their  snowy  scalps. 


232  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETOBIG. 

SECTION    Y. 
VARIATION    OF   EXPRESSION. 

1.  (a)  Insert  the  proper  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, selecting  from  the  synonyms  given,  and  keeping 
in  mind  the  remarks  on  pages  94,  95. 

I. 

Allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice,  decoy. 

1.  In  our  time  the  poor  are  strongly to  assume  the  appear- 
ance of  wealth. 

2.  I  have  heard  of  barbarians,  who,  when  tempests  drive  ships  to 

their  coasts, them  to  the  rock?,  that  they  may  plunder  their 

lading. 

3.  There  is  no  kind  of  idleness  by  which  we  are  so  easily  

as  that  which  dignifies  itself  by  the  appearance  of  business. 

4.  The  rats  and  mice  by  which  Hamelen  was  infested  were , 

it  is  said,  by  a  piper  to  a  contiguous  river  (?),  in  which  they  were 
all  drowned. 

5.  There  was  a  particular  grove  which  was  called  "the  labyrinth 
of  coquett«^s,"  where  many  were to  the  chase,  but  few  re- 
turned with  purchase. 

II. 

Heap,  pile,  accumulate,  amass. 

1.  This  would  I  celebrate  with  annual  games. 

With  gifts  on  altars ,  and  holy  flames. 

2               Within  the  circles,  arms  and  tripods  lie. 
Ingots  of  gold  and  silver on  hign. 

3.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  by  an  extraordinary  force  of  nature,  poppass 

of  thought,  and  indefatigable  study,  had  to  himself  such 

stores  of  knowledge  as  we  cannot  look  upon  without  amazement. 

4.  In  these  odes  glittering  but  graceful   ornaments   have  been 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  233 

in. 

Excessive,  immoderate,  intemperate. 

1.  Let  no  wantonness  of  youthful  spirits,  no  compliance  with  the 
mirth  of  others,  ever  betray  you  into  profane  sallies. 


2.  Who  knows  not  the  languor  that  attends  every indul- 
gence in  pleasure  ? 

3.  With  them  it  rises  to expectations  founded  on  their  sup- 
posed talents  and  imagined  merits. 

IV. 

Poverty,  indigence,  want,  need,  penury. 

1.  That  the of  the  Highlanders  is  gradually  diminished 

cannot  be  mentioned  among  the  unpleasing  consequences  of  subjec- 
tion. 

2.  is  a  bitter  and  a  hateful  good, 

Because  its  virtues  are  not  understood  ; 
Yet  many  things,  impossible  to  thought, 
Have  been  by to  full  perfection  brought. 

8.  Sometimes  am  I  a  king, 

Then  treason  makes  me  with  myself  a  beggar ; 

And  so  I  am  ;  then  crushing 

Persuades  me,  I  was  better  than  a  king. 

4.  If  we  can  but  raise  him  above ,  a  moderate  share  of  for- 
tune and  merit  will  be  suflBlcient  to  open  his  way  to  whatever  else 
we  can  wish  him  to  obtain. 


Peace,  quiet,  calm,  tranquillity. 

1.  A  paltry  tale  bearer  will  discompose  the of  a  whole 

family. 

2.  Cheerfulness  banishes  all  anxious  care  and  discontent,  soothes 
and  coir  poses  the  passions,  and  keeps  the  soul  in  a  perpetual . 

3.  By  a  patient  acquiescence  under  painful  events  for  the  present, 
we  shall  be  sure  to  contract  a of  temper. 

4.  A  false  person  ought  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  public  enemy,  and 
a  disturber  of  the of  mankind. 


234  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

1.  {h)  Substitute  other  words  for  the  Itahcised  words 
in  the  following  sentences. 

1.  All  the  little  powers,  envious  and  unfriendly,  would  have  to 
keep  standing  armies,  great  in  proportion  to  the  resources  for  sustain- 
ing them,  and  the  consequent  taxes  would  impoverish  the  people  to 
the  point  of  hopeless  and  everlasting  ruin. 

2.  His  love  of  outward  nature  had  the  power  and  pervasiveness  of 
a  passion  ;  his  observation  of  its  most  tHJling  beauties  was  exceed- 
ingly fine ;  and  his  delineations,  both  of  landscapes  and  figures,  were 
so  clearly  sketched  as  to  impress  them  on  the  mind  almost  as  indelibly 
and  deeply  as  the  perception  of  them  could  have  done. 

3.  This,  then,  is  the  stage  on  which  the  mind  of  America  is  to 
appear,  and  such  the  impulses  to  its  exertion;  such  the  body  to  bo 
moved  by  its  forces,  such  the  multitude  to  beJtold  its  attempts,  such 
the  honor  to  crown  its  success. 

4  They  beseech  us,  by  the  protracted  struggles  of  striding  humanity, 
by  the  blessed  recollections  of  the  departed ;  by  the  holy  pledges, 
which  have  been  given  by  spotless  hands,  to  the  sacred  cause  of  truth 
and  man ;  by  the  dreadful  mysteries  of  the  prison  houses,  where  the 
sons  of  liberty  hiive  been  incarcerated;  by  the  noble  heads  which 
have  been  brought  to  the  ax,  by  the  ruins  of  time,  by  the  eloquent 
remains  of  nations  they  implore  us  not  to  extinguish  the  light  which 
is  rising  in  the  world. 

5.  Cooper  possesses  the  potoer  of  imparting  to  his  sketches  a  sur- 
2')rlslng  reality.  They  are  not  mere  copies  of  nature,  though  as  such 
they  would  have  unusual  excellence,  but  actual  creations,  incorporat- 
ing the  very  soul  of  intelligent  and  pleasant  experience  and  percep- 
tion. His  savages,  notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  said  to  the 
contrary,  are  no  more  inferior  in  truthfulness  than  they  are  in  poetic 
attractiveness  to  those  of  his  rao^i  fortunate  copyists  or  competitors. 


2.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  denying  the  con- 
trary, imitating  the  example  on  page  95. 

1.  Lafayette  made  a  great  sacrifice  for  this  Republic. 

2.  Charles  is  indolent  and  slow  to  learn. 

3.  The  meal  was  excellent  for  the  occasion. 

4.  The  devotion  of  one's  life  to  his  country  is  as  noble  as  affection 

for  his  friends. 


EXERCISES  IN  STYLE.  235 

5.  They   found  him  where  they  had  left  him,  and  still  living. 

6.  His  voice  was  musical  and  his  manner  attractive. 

7.  Among  the  friends  of  Caesar,  Mark  Antony  held  a  prominer-, 
place. 

8.  There  is  great  diflBculty  in  showing  truth  in  such  a  light  as  to 
make  it  more  engaging  than  error  to  those  who  think  little  and  with- 
out system. 

9.  Experience  is  the  best  guide  in  matters  that  require  much  skill. 

10.  Truth  is  friendly  to  all  worthy  designs. 

3.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  cipcumlocution,  fol- 
lowing the  examples  on  page  95. 

1.  It  is  raining. 

2.  Lincoln  is  dead. 

3.  Rome  has  been  modernized. 
4    Geography  is  useful. 

5.  The  sky  at  night  is  beautiful. 

6.  Geology  is  a  pleasant  study. 

7.  The  birds  of  the  air  have  nests. 

8.  The  sun  has  set. 

9.  The  ocean  sleeps. 
10.  Knowledge  is  power. 

4.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  recasting  them, 
throwing  them  into  as  many  forms  as  possible,  and  select- 
ing the  best,  following  the  examples  on  page  96. 

1.  The  earth  is  a  spheroid. 

3.  The  sun  is  the  center  of  our  system. 

3.  George  Washington  has  been  called  the  "  Father  of  his  Coun-  ! 
try." 

4.  Great  Britain  is  an  island. 

5.  Gold  is  the  most  beautiful  metal. 

6.  Government  is  necessary  to  society. 

7.  Milton  wrote  the  greatest  epic  in  our  language. 

8.  The  Bible  is  a  very  ancient  book. 

9.  Light  is  opposed  to  darkness. 
10.  The  age  of  chivalry  has  gone. 


236  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

5.  Change  the  following  declarative  sentences  into  the 
form  of  a  question,  and  decide  which  form  is  the  better, 
keeping  in  mind  the  statements  on  page  97. 

1.  He  is  a  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 

2.  Honor  is  dearer  than  life. 
8.  We  are  all  doomed  to  suffer. 

4.  Thou  canst  not  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook. 

5.  A  false  witness  should  not  be  trusted. 
C.  Heaven  does  not  smile  on  vice. 

7.  Crime  is  its  own  punishment. 

8.  Virtue  is  its  own  incentive  and  its  own  reward. 

9.  No  one  can  scale  the  Alps. 

10.  We  should  not  fear  to  do  right. 

6^.  Change  the  following  declarative  sentences  into  the 
form  of  exclamations,  and  decide  which  form  is  the  better, 
following  the  examples  on  page  97. 

1.  This  is  a  glorious  day. 

2.  Conscience  whips  the  guilty. 

3.  Pride  is  humbled. 

4.  Our  free  institutions  are  noble. 

5.  Midnight  on  the  ocean  is  grand. 

6.  The  trees  are  fruitless  this  year. 

7.  That  was  a  heroic  deed.  ■    ., 

8.  The  ni^ht  is  dark. 

9.  It  was  a  pitiful  sight, 

10.  The  trials  of  life  are  many. 

7.  Change  the  following  sentences  by  nsmg  a  different 
voice,  following  the  example  on  page  98. 

1.  Peace  was  declared  by  the  two  countries  after  ten  years  of 
war. 

2.  A  grateful  nation  has  called  George  Washington  the  "  Father 
of  his  Country." 


EXEMCI8ES  IN  STYLE.  237 

3.  Africa,  so  long  a  terra  incognita,  has  recently  been  explored  by- 
many  enterprising  men  of  science, 

4.  Newton  discovered  tlie  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

5.  Socrates  was  put  to  death  by  a  tribunal  of  Athenians. 

8.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  using  there  and  it, 
following  the  examples  on  page  98. 

1.  Four  white  elephants  were  attached  to  the  royal  chariot.  ' 

2.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  is  about  three 
thousand  miles. 

3.  That  every  American  citizen  should  both  read  and  write,  is 
plain  to  every  thoughtful  mind. 

4.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  will  occur  soon. 

5.  Julius  Caesar  is  the  Roman  consul  who  was  killed  in  the 
Capitol. 

9.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  changing  from  the 
direct  to  the  indirect  form  of  statement,  or  vice  versa,  fol- 
lowing the  example  on  page  98. 

1.  Macaulay  said  that  Lord  Byron  was  the  most  celebrated  man 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

2.  As  Charles  I.  of  England  was  led  to  the  scaffold,  he  said,  "  I 
go  from  a  corruptible  to  an  incorruptible  crown  ;  where  no  disturb- 
ance can  have  place." 

3.  Webster  says  in  one  of  his  speeches  :  "  The  public  opinion  of 
the  civilized  world  is  rapidly  gaining  an  ascendency  over  mere  brute 
force." 

4.  Whipple  says  that  Daniel  Webster  was  great  by  original  con- 
stitution. 

5.  On  hearing  the  announcement  of  victory,  General  Wolfe,  who 
was  mortally  wounded,  said  to  his  attendants  that  he  died  happy. 

10.  Vary  the  following  sentences  by  transposition,  keep- 
ing in  mind  the  illustrations  on  page  99. 

1.  Parents  I  have  who  love  me  well. 

2.  The  rainbow  comes  and  goes  and  lovely  is  the  rose. 


238  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

3.  Slow  rises  worth  by  poverty  oppressed, 

4.  Such  joy  ambition  finds. 

5.  Large  was  his  bounty  and  his  soul  sincere. 


]1.  Vary  the  following  expressions  by  abridging  clauses 
into  phrases  or  words,  following  the  examples  on  page  99. 

1.  He  heard  that  we  had  left  town. 

2.  His  trust  was  one  that  could  not  be  shaken. 

3.  Alter  he  arrived,  we  had  a  conversation. 

4.  A  house  which  is  desirable  can  be  sold  at  almost  any  time, 

5.  That  his  views  have  changed  makes  a  difference  in  his  con- 
duct. 

6.  If  this  is  the  plan  that  they  have  adopted,  they  will  not  suc- 
ceed. 

7.  His  intention  was  that  this  hope  might  encourage  his  friends. 

8.  He  stated  the  cause  why  he  was  absent. 


CHAPTEH   HI. 

SEICTIOIT    I. 

PUNCTUATION    AND    CAPITALS. 

THE    GRAMMATICAL   POINTS. 

1.  Use  the  Comma  in  the  following  sentences  wherever 
it  is  required  by  the  rules  on  pages  104-109. 

Rule  I. 

1.  Truth  from  wliatever  source  it  is  derived  is  worthy  of  our 
acceptance. 

3.  All  men  therefore  should  reverence  truth. 

3.  The  faithful  soldier  no  doubt  will  be  honored  by  his  country. 

4.  Well  times  change  as  men  change. 

5.  Yes  that  is  true. 

6.  Wealth  although  it  is  a  great  convenience  is  not  the  chief 
blessinjr  of  life. 

7.  However  truthfully  we  speak  we  shall  sometimes  misrepresent 
reality. 

8.  Again  property  has  a  claim  upon  legal  protection  from  the  bur- 
dens placed  upon  the  owner  of  property. 

9.  This  life  in  short  is  not  the  only  one  for  which  provision  must 
b3  made. 

10.  Confidence  moreover  is  influential  upon  trade. 

Rule  II. 

1.  Milton  the  writer  of  "  Paradise  Lost  "  was  also  a  great  politi- 
cian. 


240  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  UHETOMC 

2.  Priestly  the  discoverer  of  oxygen  was  a  voluminous  writer. 

3.  Napoleon  has  been  called  '*  the  man  of  destiny." 

4.  Paul  the  apostle  was  a  bitter  persecutor  of  the  faith  he  after- 
wards preached  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

5.  Howard  the  prisoner's  friend  devoted  his  life  to  philanthropy. 


Rule  III. 

1.  The  Zend-Avesta  which  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  followers  ci 
Zoroaster  is  very  ancient. 

2.  He  is  a  noble  citizen  and  a  good  father  who  remembers  in  the 
education  of  his  sons  that  the  state  has  need  of  men  who  love  it  and 
who  understand  its  laws. 

3.  It  is  not  strange  that  life  has  trials,  temptations,  and  toils 
which  test,  endanger,  and  weary  men, 

4.  The  author  who  in  any  department  of  literature  would  win 
success  has  increasing  diflBculties  with  the  progress  of  tim;^'. 

5.  The  sorrows  which  wring  our  hearts  often  leave  them  better 
fitted  for  life's  realities. 


Rule  IV. 

1.  The  discourse  was  beautifully  elegantly  forcibly  delivered. 

2.  Industry  honesty  and  temperance  are  essential  to  happiness. 

3.  The  man  professed  neither  to  eat  nor  drink  nor  sleep. 

4.  All   have  some  conceptions  of  truth  kindness  honesty  self- 
denial  and  disinterestedness. 

5.  His  uncle  had  a  beautiful  white  horse. 


Rule  V. 

1.  Night  v.i»s  ap; roaching  the  birds  were  seeking  their  resting 
places  the  plowmen  were  turning  homeward  and  the  cattle  were 
gathering  from  the  fields. 

2.  Queen  Mary  was  dead  Elizabeth  was  the  choice  of  the  nation 
and  her  friends  were  ready  to  proclaim  her  monarch  of  the  realm. 

3.  In  times  of  peace  industry  is  paramount  in  times  of  war  tlie 
arts  of  destruction  in  times  of  transition  the  nation  holds  one  hand 
on  the  plow  the  other  on  the  sword. 

4.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies  simple  men  admire  them  and  wise 
men  use  them. 


EXEBGI8ES  IN  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  241 


Rule  VI. 

1.  If  men  were  all  virtuous  and  intelligent  there  would  never  be 
another  war. 

2.  He  spent  years  in  the  most  irksome  pursuits  in  order  that  he 
might  train  his  mind  to  any  form  of  application. 

3.  He  felt  that  it  was  a  great  injustice  to  have  no  opportunity  of 
defence. 

4»  It  was  the  purpose  of  his  whole  life  that  he  might  end  it  in 
honor. 

5.  Unless  there  is  a  change  among  men  society  must  still  suffer 
many  inconveniences. 

Kiile  VII. 

1.  In  perusing  the  works  of  enlightened  men  we  ought  to  think 
much. 

2.  Of  all  our  senses  eight  is  the  most  perfect. 

3.  In  order  to  improve  the  mind  we  ought  less  to  learn  than  to 
contemplate. 

4.  To  every  character  its  fitting  position  and  appropriate  function 
have  been  assigned. 

5.  From  the  right  exercise  of  our  intellectual  powers  arises  one 
of  the  chief  sources  of  our  happiness. 

Rule  VIIT. 

1.  He  that  places  himself  neither  higher  nor  lower  than  he  ought 
to  do  exercises  the  truest  humility. 

2.  To  become  conversant  with  a  certain  department  of  literature 
only  has  a  tendency  to  make  our  views  narrow  and  our  impressions 
incorrect. 

3.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

4.  The  boldness  of  these  predictions  the  apparent  proximity  of 
their  fulfillment  and  the  imposing  oratory  of  the  preacher  struck 
awe  into  the  hearts  of  his  audience. 


Rule  IX. 

1.  Having  the  inward  life  men  cannot  conceal  it ;  having  divine 
treasures  they  will  not  hoard  them. 
11 


242  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  BHETORIC. 

2.  Surpassiug  the  boast  of  ihe  too  confident  Roman  Napoleon  but 
stamped  on  the  earth  and  a  creation  of  enchantment  arose. 

3.  Sitting  by  the  foantain  he  sang  for  the  passers-by. 
'    4.   Awaiting  the  blow  he  stood  calm  but  expectant. 

5.  Having  abandoned  our  vices  let  us  try  to  acquire  virtues. 

liiile  X. 

1.  Earth  and  sky  plant  and  animal  leaf  and  blossom  alike  are 
full  of  wonders. 

2.  Csesar  and  Napoleon  Virgil  and  Milton  Cicero  and  Burke  prove 
clearly  that  man  is  animated  by  the  same  aspirations  and  possesses 
about  the  same  powers  in  every  age  of  the  vi^orld. 

3.  The  dying  man  cares  not  for  houses  or  lands  gold  or  bonds 
offices  or  honors. 

4.  Virtue  without  industry  and  idleness  without  vice  are  impos- 
sibilities. 

Rule  XI. 

1.  Semiramis  built  Babylon  ;  Dido  Carthage  ;  and  Romulus 
Rome. 

2.  Truth  belongs  to  the  man  ;  error  to  his  age. 

3.  Industry  brings  wealth  and  honor  ;  indolence  poverty  and  dis- 
grace. 

4.  The  Greeks  were  great  artists ;  the  Romans  great  executives. 

5.  Old  men  are  slaves  to  others;  young  men  to  themselves. 

Rule  XI F. 

1.  Father  you  deserve  my  deepest  gratitude. 

2.  You  and  I  John  were  happy  in  our  old  home. 

3^  It  was  then  good  friends  that  your  assistance  was  most  needed, 

4.  I  rise  Mr.  President  to  state  a  point  of  order. 

5.  This  O  King  is  my  only  plea  for  mercy. 


Rule  XIII. 

1.  The  old  proverb  is  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters, 

2.  Patrick  Henry  began  a  famous  oration  by  saying  "It  is  natural 
to  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope." 


EXERCISES  IN  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  343 

3.  The  question  now  arises  shall  the  voter  be  required  to  read  his 
own  ballot. 

4.  It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  interest  whether  all  men  can  use 
one  language. 

5.  it  has  been  divinely  declared  "  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread 
alone." 


Rule  XIV. 

1.  The  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  moon  is  said  to  be  about 
240000  miles. 

2.  The  highest  mountain  in  the  moon  is  said  to  be  17138  feet 
high. 

3.  The  surface  of  the  earth  contains  148512000  miles. 

4.  In  the  year  1876  the  first  national  centennial  was  celebrated. 

5.  The  sun  is  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand  two  hun- 
drexi  and  ten  miles  in  diameter. 


2.  Use  the  Semi -Colon  wherever  it  is  required  in  the 
following  sentences,  according  to  the  rules  stated  on  pages 
109,  111. 

Rule  I. 

1  The  storm  has  passed  the  clouds  are  departing  the  sunshine 
will  soon  brighten  the  scene  the  laborers  resume  their  toils. 

2.  The  true  orator  has  perfect  command  of  himself  he  is  a  master 
of  his  theme  he  rules  his  audience  he  holds  them  by  the  power  of 
his  thought  he  warns  them  by  the  emotions  of  his  heart. 

3.  We  pay  no  homage  at  the  tomb  of  kings  to  sublime  our  feel- 
ings we  trace  no  line  of  illustrious  ancestors  to  support  our  dignity 
we  recur  to  no  usages,  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  great,  to 
protract  our  rejoicing. 

Rule  II. 

1.  That  darkness  of  charactei;,  where  we  can  see  no  heart  those 
foldings  of  art,  through  winch  no  native  affection  is  allowed  to 
penetrate  present  an  object,  unamiable  in  every  season  of  life,  but 
particularly  odious  in  youth. 


2U  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

2.  The  creation  of  a  thousand  forests  is  in  one  acorn  and  Egypt, 
Greece,  Rome,  Gaul,  Britain,  America  lie  folded  already  in  the  first 
man. 

3.  The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  safe  path  that  of  falsehood,  a 
perplexing  maze. 

4.  The  golden  rule  is  a  protest  against  selfishness,  and  selfishness 
cleaving  as  it  does  to  the  inmost  core  of  our  being,  is  the  besetting 
sin  of  the  world. 

5.  Every  thing  that  happens  is  both  a  cause  and  an  effect  being 
the  effect  of  what  goes  before,  and  the  cause  of  whav  follows. 


Rule  III. 

1.  Modesty  is  one  of  the  chief  ornaraents  of  youth  and  has  ever 
been  esteemed  a  presage  of  rising  merit. 

2.  Men  must  have  recreation  and  literature  and  art  furnish  that 
which  is  most  pure,  innocent  and  refining. 

3.  The  violent  spirit,  like  troubled  waters,  renders  back  the 
images  of  things  distorted  and  broken  and  communicates  to  them 
all  that  disordered  motion  which  arises  solely  from  its  own  agitation. 

4.  Endless  existence  is  a  great  truth  but  an  immortality  of  pure 
affection  and  holy  employments  is  far  greater. 


Rule  IV. 

1.  The  parts  of  Grammar  are  four  Orthography  Etymology,  Syn- 
tax, and  Prosody. 

2.  Poetry  is  usually  divided  into  four  kinds  Epic,  Lyric  Dramatic 
and  Didactic. 

3.  There  were  three  Fates  Clotho,  I^chesis,  and  Atropos. 

4.  Whately  mentions  three  operations  of  the  mind  in  logical 
processes  Simple  apprehension,  Judgment,  and  Reasoning. 

5.  There  are  three  noble  virtues  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 

Rule  V. 

1.  If  thou  hast  never  tasted  the  holy  peace  which  descends  into 
the  simplest  heart,  when  it  fervently  realizes  the  presence  of  God 
if  pp  gleam  from  the  future  life  ever  brightens  the  earthly  way  if 
the  sores  and  irritations  of  thy  contact  with  the  world  are  never 
soothed  and  softened  by  the  healing  conciousness  of  a  divine  love 


EXERCISES  IN  PUNGTUATIOJS,  AND  CAPITALS.   245 

thou  hast  studied  to  little  purpose,  and  the  fountains  of  a  true  hap- 
piness are  yet  sealed  up  to  thee. 

2.  That  benevolence  which  prompted  Jesus  to  incessant  exertion 
which  supported  liiin  through  unparalleled  suffering  which  was  alike 
the  soul  of  his  discourses,  his  actions,  and  his  miracles  which  shone 
through  his  life  and  his  death  whose  splendors  were  around  his 
brow  when  he  expired  on  the  cross,  and  when  he  sat  down  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high,  what  is  it  but  a  glorious  revela- 
tion of  the  glorious  truth  that  God  is  love  ? 

3,  No  matter  in  what  language  his  doom  may  have  been  pro- 
nounced, no  matter  what  complexion  incompatible  with  freedom  an 
Indian  or  an  African  sun  may  have  burned  upon  him,  no  matter 
with  what  solemnities  he  may  have  been  devoted  on  the  altar  of 
slavery  the  moment  he  touches  the  sacred  soil  of  Britain,  the  altar 
and  the  god  sink  together  in  the  dust,  his  soul  walks  abroad  in  her 
own  majesty,  his  body  swells  beyond  the  chains  that  burst  from 
around  him,  and  he  stands  redeemed,  regenerated,  and  disenthralled 
by  the  irresistible  genius  of  Universal  Emancipation. 

3.  Use  the  Colon  wherever  it  is  required  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  according  to  the  rules  on  pages  111,  113. 

Rule  I. 

1.  The  three  great  enemies  to  tranquillity  are  vice,  superstition 
and  idleness  vice,  which  poisons  and  disturbs  the  mind  with  bad 
passions  ;  superstition,  which  fills  it  with  imaginary  terrors  ;  idle- 
ness, which  loads  it  with  tediousness  and  disgust. 

3.  Every  one  must,  of  course,  think  his  own  opinions  right ;  for,  if 
he  thought  them  wrong,  they  would  no  longer  be  his  opinions  but 
there  is  a  wide  difference  between  regarding  ourselves  as  infallible, 
and  being  firmly  convinced  of  the  truth  of  our  creed. 

Rule  II. 

1.  Birth  and  death  have  an  indissoluble  correlation  they  presup- 
pose each  other. 

3.  There  is  true  eloquence,  which  you  cannot  too  much  honor  it 
calls  into  vigorous  exercise  both  the  understanding  and  the  heart  of 
the  hearer. 

3.  The  silence  of  nature  is  mpre  impressive,  would  we  understand 
it,  than  any  speech  could  be  it  expresses  what  no  speech  can  utter. 


246  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

4.  Satire  should  not  be  like  a  saw,  but  a  sword,  it  should  cut,  and 
not  mangle. 

Rule  III. 

1.  The  Saranites  said  to  the  Romans  •*  There  shall  be  no  peace  in 
Italy,  till  the  forest  be  rooted  up  in  which  the  Roman  wolves  have 
made  themselves  a  covert," 

2.  When  his  architect  offered  to  buikl  him  a  house  in  which  he 
could  screen  all  his  acts  from  his  neighbors,  Drusus  said  "  Build  me 
rather  a  dwelling  wherein  all  my  countrymen  may  witness  all  I  do." 

3.  Merivale  says  "  M.  Aurelius  was  among:  the  most  virtuous  of 
men,  but  there  was  an  inherent  weakness  in  his  character,  of  which 
some  traces  appear  in  his  writings,  but  which  were  manifested 
more  plainly  to  his  countrymen  in  the  indulgence  with  which  he 
overlooked  the  vices  of  his  empress,  and  allowed  himself  to  nominate 
a  worthless  son  as  his  successor." 

Rule  IV. 

[See  Rale  III.  for  the  period.] 

4.  Use  the  Period  in  the  following  sentences,  wherever 
required,  according  to  the  rules  on  pages  113,  114. 

Rule  I. 

1.  At  the  time  when  Johnson  commenced  his  literary  career,  a 
writer  had  little  to  hope  from  the  patronage  of  powerful  individuals 
The  patronage  of  the  public  did  not  yet  furnish  the  means  of  com- 
fortable subsistence  The  prices  paid  by  booksellers  were  so  low  that 
a  man  of  considerable  talents  and  unremitting  industry  could  do 
little  more  than  provide  for  the  day  which  was  passing  over  him 
The  lean  kine  had  eaten  up  the  fat  kine 

2.  In  the  age  of  our  great  rhetoricians,  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
English  language  had  never  been  made  an  object  of  conscious  atten- 
tion No  man  seems  to  have  reflected  that  there  was  a  wrong  and  a 
right  in  the  choice  of  words,  in  the  mechanism  of  sentences,  or  even 
in  the  grammar 


EXERCISES  m  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  M? 

Rule  II. 

1.  C  L  Banks,  MD,  Allmny,  N  Y 

2-  Rev  J  L  Mason,  D  D,  LL  D,  Boston,  Mass 

3.  Wm  P  Thompson,  Esq,  Richmond,  Va 

4.  Hon  Jon  S  Dow,  LL  D,  St  Louis,  Mo 
5-  Messrs  Sheldon  &  Co,  No.  8  Murray  St 


Rule  III. 


1. 


i  THE 

1  LIFE  AND  GROWTH 

j  OP 

I  An  Outline  of  Linguistic  Science 


•Wm  Dwight  Whitnet  PhD 

Professor  of  Sanscrit  in  Yale 

College. 


New  York 

D  Appleton  &  Company 

1875 


THE  SCIENCE  OP 

ESTHETICS 

OB 

THE    NATURE    KINDS    LAWS 

AND  USES  OF 

BEAUTY 

Henry  N  Day 
Author  of  Logic  Art  of  Dis- 
course etc 


New  Haven  Conn 
Charles  C  Chatfield  &  Co 

1872 


SECTION   n. 

THE    RHETORICAL   POINTS. 


1.  Use  the  Mark  of  Interrogation  wherever  it  is  re- 
quired in  the  following  sentences,  according  to  the  rules 
on  pages  114,  115. 


248  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC. 

1.  Taking  up  the  subject  upon  general  grounds,  I  ask  what  is 
meant  by  the  word  Poet  What  is  a  Poet  To  whom  does  lie  ad- 
dress himself    And  what  language  is  to  be  expected  from  him 

2.  Do  you  think  nothing  of  the  ruin  and  the  miseries  in  which  so 
many  other  individuals,  still  remaining  in  Africa,  are  involved,  in 
consequence  of  carrying  off  so  many  myriads  of  people  Do  you 
think  nothing  of  their  Jamilies  which  are  left  behind  of  the  connec- 
tions which  are  broken  of  the  friendships,  attachments,  and  relation- 
ships that  are  burst  asunder. 

3.  Which  is  to  be  obeyed,  appetite  or  reflection  Cannot  this, 
question  be  answered  from  the  economy  and  constitution  of  human 
nature  merely,  without  saying  wliich  is  strongest  Or  need  this  at 
all  come  into  consideration 


2.  Use  the  Exclamation  Point  wherever  it  is  required 
in  the  following  sentences,  according  to  the  rules  on  pages 
115,  116. 

1.  Think  of  eighty  thousand  persons  carrie<i  away  out  of  their 
country  by  what  we  know  not  what  means  for  crimes  imputed  for 
light  or  inconsiderable  faults  for  debt,  perhaps  for  the  crime  of 
witchcraft  or  a  thousand  other  weak  and  scandalous  pretexts. 

2.  What  an  object  of  wonder  and  awe  is  an  old  castle  to  a  boyish 
imagination  Its  height,  how  dreadful  up  to  whose  mouldering 
edges  his  fear  carries  him,  and  hangs  over  the  battlements  What 
beauty  in  those  unapproachable  wall-flowers,  that  cast  a  brightness 
on  the  old  brown  stones  of  the  edifice,  and  make  the  horror  pleasing 

3.  Alas  poor  creature  I  will  scon  revenge  this  cruelty  upon  the 
author  of  it 

4.  Oh  bloodiest  picture  in  the  book  of  time  Sarmatia  fell,  un- 
wept, without  a  crime. 

5.  Oh  you  are  wounded  my  lord 

6.  O  Providence  how  many  poor  insects  of  thine  are  exposed  to  be 
trodden  to  death  in  each  path. 

,    3.  Use  the  Dash  wherever  it  is  required  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  according  to  the  rules  on  pages  116-118. 

1.  My  lords,  I  did  not  intend  to  encroach  so  much  upon  your 
attention  :  but  I  cannot  repress  my  indignation  I  feel  myself  com- 
pelled to  speak. 


EXEnCI8E8  IN  FVJSCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.   249 

2.  He  saw  in  lier  the  picture  of  all  who  talked  about  religion  I 
knew  better. 

3.  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once  but,  oh,  how  fallen  ! 

4.  Approaching  the  head  of  the  bed,  where  my  poor  young  com- 
panion, with  throat  uncovered,  was  lying,  with  one  hand  the  mon- 
ster grasped  his  knife,  and  with  the  other  ah,  cousin !  with  the 
other  he  seized  a  ham  ! 

5.  Shakespeare  is  above  all  other  writers,  at  least  above  all 
modern  writers,  the  poet  of  nature  the  ])oet  that  holds  up  to  his 
readers  a  faithful  mirror  of  manners  and  life. 

G.  Of  genius  that  which  constitutes  a  poet ;  that  quality  without 
which  judgment  is  cold,  and  knowledge  is  inert ;  that  energy  which 
collects,  combines,  amplifies,  and  animates  the  superiority  must, 
with  some  hesitation,  be  allowed  to  Dryden. 

7.  Jesus,  who  knew  it  well,  assures  you  that  a  single  grain,  and 
a  grain  as  small  as  a  mustard-seed,  would  remove  a  mountain  re- 
move a  mountain-load  of  guilt  from  the  conscience  a  mountain-load 
of  trouble  from  the  mind,  a  mountain-load  from  the  heart. 

8.  If  you  choose  to  represent  the  various  parts  in  life  by  holes 
upon  a  table,  of  different  shapes  some  circular,  some  triangular,  eome 
square,  some  oblong  and  the  persons  acting  these  parts  by  bits  of 
wood  of  similar  shapes,  we  shall  generally  find  that  the  triangular 
person  has  got  into  the  square  hole,  the  oblong  into  the  triangular, 
and  a  square  person  has  squeezed  himsi'lf  into  a  round  hole. 

9.  Indeed,  all  the  poets  of  the  age  and  none  can  disjmte  that  they 
must  likewise  be  the  best  critics  have  given  up  to  him  [Wordsworth] 
the  palm  in  that  poetry  which  commences  with  the  forms,  and  hues, 
and  odors,  and  sounds  of  the  material  world. 

10.  In  such  a  state  of  things  it  is  evident  that  a  pardon  which  did 
not  bring  back  the  wanderer,  and  restore  his  lost  gravitation,  would 
be  of  no  use  to  him,  until  his  gravitation  is  recovered,  he  is  a  blot 
on  the  creation. 


4.  Use  Marks  of  Parenthesis  in  the  following  sentences 
wherever  they  are  required  by  the  rule  on  page  119. 

1.  Now  v.-e  know  the  language  that  the  very  learned  part  of  this 
nation  must  trust  to  live  by,  unless^ it  be  to  make  a  bond  or  pre- 
scribe a  purge  which  possibly  may  not  oblige  or  work  so  well  in  any 
other  language  as  Latin  is  the  English. 


250  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  lUlETORlG. 

2.  Blount  and  Fitz-Eustace  rested  still 

With  Lady  Clare  upon  the  hill ; 
On  which  for  far  the  day  was  spent 
The  western  sunbeams  now  were  bent. 
8.  There  never  lived  a  man,  he  said,  to  whom  the  lines  of  Marcus 
Antonius  Flaminius  the  sweetest  of  all  Latin  poets  in  modern  times, 
or  perliaps  of  any  age  could  more  truly  be  applied. 

4,  Feltham's  "  Resolves  "  *' resolve,"  in  the  senss  of  solution  of 
a  problem,  published  in  1637,  is  a  work  of  the  same  kind. 

5.  The  beauty  of  the  language,  the  easy  and  artless  graces  of  the 
style,  the  lucidity  of  the  reasoning,  the  fairness  shown  to  the  other 
side  for  Berkely  always  treats  his  opyjonents  like  a  gentleman  and 
gives  them  credit  for  sincerity,  not  with  supercilious  and  censorious 
arrogance,  like  such  writers  as  Bishop  Warburton,  are  among  its 
many  excellences. 


5.  Use  Marks  of  Quotation  in  the  following  examples 
wherever  they  are  required,  according  to .  the  rules  on 
pages  130,  131. 

1,  Retiring  to  her  mausoleum,  where  lay  the  body  of  Antonius, 
sho  [CleopatraJ  crowned  his  tomb  with  flowers,  and  was  found  the 
next  morning  dead  on  her  couch,  her  two  women  expiring  at  her 
side.  Is  this  well  V  exclaimed  tlie  affrighted  emissary  of  Octavius. 
It  is  well,  replied  the  dying  Caaimion,  and  worthy  of  the  daughter 
of  kings. 

2.  When  he  was  approaching  his  death,  so  runs  the  story,  Tibe- 
rius exclaimed  :  After  my  death  perish  the  world  in  fire  ! 

4.  In  describing  the  vast  influence  of  a  perfect  orator  over  the 
feelings  and  passions  of  his  audience,  Sheridan  forcibly  says-:  Nor- 
withstanding  the  diversity  of  minds  in  such  a  multitude,  by  the 
lightning  of  eloquence  they  are  melted  into  one  mass;  the  whole 
assembly,  actuated  in  one  and  the  same  way.  become,  as  it  were, 
but  one  man,  and  have  but  one  voice.  The  universal  cry  is,  Let  us 
march  against  Philip  :  let  us  fight  for  our  liberties  :  let  us  conquer 
or  die  ! 

4.  Now  is  the  time  to  watch  her  closely.  Mr.  Grifllth,  he  cried  ; 
here  we  get  the  true  tide  and  the  real  danger.  Place  the  best  quar- 
termaster of  your  ship  in  those  chains,  and  let  an  officer  stand  by 
liira,  and  see  that  he  give  us  the  right  water. 


EXERCISES  IN  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  251 

I  will  take  that  office  on  myself,  said  the  captain  ;  pass  a  light 
into  the  weather  main-chains. 

Stand  by  your  braces  I  exclaimed  the  pilot  with  startling  quick- 
ness.    Heave  away  that  lead  ! 

5.  Chauning  writes  as  follows  on  the  freedom  of  the  mind  : — 

I  call  that  mind  free,  which  resists  the  bondage  of  habit,  which 
does  not  mechanically  repeat  itself  and  copy  the  past,  which  does 
not  live  on  its  old  virtues,  which  does  not  enslave  itself  to  precisa 
rules,  but  which  forgets  what  is  behind,  listens  for  new  and  higher 
monitions  of  conscience,  and  rejoices  to  pour  itself  forth  in  fresh  and 
higher  exertii)ns. 

I  call  that  mind  free,  which  is  jealous  of  its  own  freedom,  which 
guards  itself  from  being  merged  in  others,  which  guards. its  empire 
over  itself  as  nobler  than  the  empire  of  the  Avorld. 


SECTION   in. 

CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Use  CAPITAL  LETTEES  m  the  following  exercises 
wherever  they  are  required,  according  to  the  rules  on 
pages  124-128. 

1.  my  reverence  and  affection  for  him  were  in  full  glow,  i  said 
to  him,  "  my  dear  sir,  Ave  must  meet  every  year,  if  you  don't  quarr^^l 
with  me." 

2.  he  asked  me  plainly,  will  you  stay  where  you  are  or  go  with 
usV 

3.  the  morning  broke,  light  sto^e  upon  the  clouds  with  a  strange 
beauty,  earth  received  again  its  garment  of  a  thousand  dyes  ;  and 
leaves,  and  delicate  blossoms,  and  the  painted  flowers,  and  every 
thing  that  bendeth  to  the  dew,  and  stirreth  to  the  daylight,  lifted 
up  its  beauty  to  the  breath  of  that  sweet  morn. 

4.  Among  the  writings  of  John  Stuart  Mill,  there  is  none  thrt 
deserves  more  attention  than  his  "system  of  logic." 

5.  The  scriptures  should  be  held  in  «reverence  for  what  they  arc 
and  for  what  they  have  done. 


252  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  EHETOBIC. 

6.  The  fatal  result  was  prevented,  through  providence. 

7.  It  is  cheering  to  toiling  disconsolate  humanity  to  know  amid 
the  labors  and  sorrows  of  life  that  He  Who  rules  in  all  parts  of  the 
universe,  and  Who  foreknows  the  issues  of  all  time,  has  called  him- 
self our  heavenly  father. 

8.  The  Hindoo  regards  his  shaster  with  a  j-ecuiiar  reverence. 

9.  The  Greeks  were  accustomed  to  call  themselves  hellenes  and 
their  country  hellas,  from  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion. 

10.  The  north  and  the  south,  the  east  and  the  west,  have  their 
separate  interests. 

11.  The  Detroit  river  connects  lake  Huron  with  lake  Erie. 

12.  The  christian  religion  has  made  slow  progress  in  moharame- 
dan  countries. 

13.  The  congregationalists  differ  from  the  episcopalians  in  their 
views  of  government. 

14.  He  visited  my  house  on  Saturday,  the  13th  of  may. 

15.  All  his  family  that  remained  in  England,  were  allowed  access 
to  him.  It  consisted  only  of  the  princess  elizabeth  and  the  duke  of 
gloucester;  for  the  duke  of  york  had  made  his  escape.  Gloucester 
was  little  more  than  an  infant, ;  the  princess,  notwithstanding  her 
tender  years,  showed  an  advanced  judgment ;  and  the  calamities  of 
her  family  had  made  a  deep  impression  upon  her.  After  many 
pious  consolations  and  advices,  the  King  gave  her  in  charge  to  tell 
the  Queen,  that,  during  the  whole  course  of  his  life  he  had  never 
once,  even  in  thought,  failed  in  his  fidelity  toward  her. 

16.  The  constitution  of  the  united  states  is  worthy  of  careful 
study  by  every  american  youth. 

17.  The  elizabethan  agfo  produced  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  Sidney, 
Bacon  and  Raleigh. 

18.  The  american  revolution  was  an  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world. 

1).  The  inability  of  mere  learning  to  make  men  wise,  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  long  and  bitter  controversy  of  the  nominalists  and 
realists. 

20.  Among  the  prominent  literary  men  of  the  century,  the  nobility 
can  claim  lord  Byron,  lord  Derby,  lord  Disraeli,  lord  Russell,  and 
many  others. 


[Those  desiring  a  more  extended  course  in  Punctuation  and  the 
use  of  Capitals,  will  find  Wilson's  "  Treatise  on  Punctuation  "  an 
excellent  guide.] 


AND     GLOSSARY 


Note. — The  Index  and  the  Glossary  are  given  under  one  alpha- 
bet, for  facility  of  reference.  All  difficult  words  have  the  pronun- 
ciation marked.  The  signs  employed  are  those  generally  used  in 
pronouncing  dictionaries.     The  numbers  refer  to  pages. 


Abbott,  E.  A.,  quoted,  52,  53,  55. 

Abbrevia'tions,  how  pointed, 
113  ;  in  poetry,  199. 

Abridgment,  a  means  of  varia- 
tion, 99. 

Abrupt  changes,  how  pointed, 
116. 

Absolute  construction,  108. 

Abundance,  the  word  explained, 
40. 

Accents,  kinds  of,  121. 

Acknowledge,  the  word  ex- 
plained, 39. 

Acts  are  the  principal  divisions 
of  a  drilma,  in  which  a  certain 
definite  part  of  the  action  is 
completed. 

Added  clauses,  how  pointed, 
110. 

Addison,  style  of,  24 ;  his 
rhythm,  69  ;  par.  from,  76. 

Adjectives,  use  of,  50  ;  super- 
lative in  sense,  50. 

Adjunct,  use  of,  56 ;  defined,  56. 


Adverbs,  distinguished  from  ad- 
jectives, 51  ;  position  of,  55  ; 
wlien  emphatic,  50. 

Adverbial  clauses,  position  of, 
56  ;  defined,  56. 

Esthetic  emotions,  specula- 
tions about,  145. 

Aggravate,  the  word  explained, 
85. 

Akenside,  referred  to,  139,  19S. 

Aldus  Manutius,  [ma-nu-she- 
us],  an  inventor  of  points,  104. 

Alison,  quoted,  137  ;  referred  to, 
146. 

Allegory,  explained,  84. 

Allow,  the  word  explained,  35. 

Allusion,  [allu'-zhun]  is  a  pass- 
ing reference  to  something  sup- 
posed to  be  known,  and  referred 
to  for  the  sake  of  illustration. 

Alphabet,  phonetic  scheme  of, 
68. 

Amatory,  pertaining  to  love,  as 
amatory  poetry. 

Americanisms  are  forms  of  ex- 


254 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


pression  peculiar  to  the  United 

States. 
Amphia'mbus,  201. 
Amplifica'tion  is  the  process  of 

enlarging,  or  giving  the  details 

in  a  composhion. 
Amphi'macer.     A  foot  of  three 

syllables ;    the    first    and  last 

long,    the    middle    short ;    as, 

AnaQoeno'^Bis  is  a  form  of 
speech  in  which  a  speaker  con- 
fidently appeals  to  his  oppo- 
nents for  their  opinion. 

Anacolu'thon  is  a  sudden 
change  in  the  construction  of 
a  sentence. 

Anadlplo'sis  consists  of  the  rep- 
etition of  the  last  word  of  a 
sentence  or  clause  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next ;  as,  "  He 
loved  the  state,  the  state  for 
which  he  had  sacrificed  all." 

An^a-lep'sis,  is  a  grammatical 
redundancy  designed  to  give 
emphasis. 

Analy'tic  method,  19. 

A'napasst,  201. 

AnS' strophe,  is  an  inversion  of 
the  natural  order  of  words ; 
as,  *  Rolled  the  deep  thunder," 
for,  "The  deep  thunder 
rolled." 

And,  misuse  of,  75. 

Angus,  list  of  prepositions  from, 
36. 

An'nals,  definition  of,  162. 

Annbmination  is  the  same  as 
paronomasia. 

Antanacla'sis  is  used  in  two 
senses :  (1)  the  same  as  pun  ; 
(2)  to  denote  a  repetition  after 
a  parenthetical  expression. 


Antibacchi'us.  A  foot  of  three 
syllables,  the  first  two  long, 
the  third  short  ;  as, •^. 

Anti-clim'ax,  90. 

Antimeta'bole  is  a  form  of 
antithesis  in  which  the  order 
of  words  is  reversed. 

Anti'strophe  is  used  in  three 
senses :  (1)  the  repetition  of 
words  in  an  inverse  order ; 
(2)  the  turning-  of  an  oppo- 
nent's plea  against  him ;  (3) 
the  response  to  the  strophe  in 
the  ancient  chorus. 

Anti'thesis,  use  of,  66 ;  exam- 
ple of  in  a  paragraph,  73,  ex- 
planation of,  89. 

Antonomasia,  [mii'zia]  is  the 
use  of  some  name,  as  of  an 
office,  honor,  or  profession,  for 
the  proper  name  of  a  person  ; 
as,  "  The  philosphej',"  meaning 
Socrates;  or,  conversely,  the 
name  of  a  distinguished  person 
is  used  for  another;  as,  "He 
is  a  Solon,"  meaning  a  wise 
lawgiver. 

Apher'esis,  takes  a^  letter  or 
syllable  from  the  beginning  of 
a  word  ;  as,  'twas,  for  it  was. 

ApS'cope,  takes  away  a  letter 
or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a 
word ;  as,  yond,  for  yonder. 

Apologue,  [a'p-o-log.]  An  ap- 
ologue is  a  kind  of  fable  de- 
signed to  convey  a  moral.  It 
is  generally  founded  on  the 
pretended  actions  of  dumb  be- 
ings, as  animals  and  trees. 

Apophasis,  [a-pof-a-sis]  is  the 
omission  of  what  one  would 
insinuate  as  important,  and  yet 
refuses  to  state  in  full. 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


255 


Apo'ria  is  a  form  of  speech  in 
which  one  professes  to  be  at  a 
loss.     See  Luke,  xvi.  3. 

Aposiope'sis  is  a  form  of  speech 
in  which  the  speaker  comes  to 
a  sudden  halt, — as  if  unwilling 
or  unable  to  express  himself, — 
and  changes  the  construction 
of  his  sentence  ,  as,  "  Whom  I 
— but  it  is  best  first,"  etc. 

Apo'strophe,  the  figure,  88 ; 
the  mark  in  punctuation,  123. 

Apposition,  defined,  106  ;  par- 
ticulars in,  111. 

Archaisms  are  ancient  or  obso- 
lete forms  of  expression.  An 
archaic  form  is  an  archaism. 

Argumentation,  referred  to, 
189. 

Arist5'phSnes.  an  inventor  of 
points,  104. 

Aristb'tle,  referred  to,  146, 
187. 

Armstrong,  Thomas,  referred 
to,  198. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  quoted,  15. 

Arrangement,  importance  of, 
16  ;  methods  of,  19. 

Article,  use  of,  47. 

Asy'ndeton,  64. 

As,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Audit6'rium,  81. 

Authorities,  names  of,  how 
pointed,  118. 

Antobio'graphy,  definition  of, 
162. 

Avo"w,  use  of  the  word,  39. 


B. 

BScchana'lian  applies  to  what- 
ever is  riotous  or  under  the 
influence    of      the     wine-god 


Bacchus.    Applied  in  literature 
to  convivial  songs. 
Bacchi'us.     A  foot  of  three  syl- 
lables, the  first  short,  and  the 
second    and    third    long ;     as, 

Badinage,  [bad-in-azh]  is  dis- 
course in  a  light,  playful  vein. 

Bain,  list  of  expressions  from, 
37 ;  quoted,  64. 

Balfour,  the  Puritan,  described, 
166. 

Ballads.  197. 

Banter  is  pleasant,  humorous 
jesting. 

Barbarism,  28. 

Bartlett,  referred  to,  30. 

Bascom,  quoted,  24, 

Ba'thos  is  a  ludicrous  descent 
from  the  sublime  to  the  low 
and  mean. 

Baumgarten,  quoted,  146. 

Beauty,  theories  of,  145  ;  forms 
of  in  literature,  147. 

Belief,  how  produced,  188. 

Belles-lettres,  [bel-lettr]  is  a 
term  vaguely  applied  to  ele- 
gant literature  in  general,  and 
Rhetoric  in  particular. 

Berkeley,  George,  style  of,  23. 

Bet-wixt,  use  of  the  word,  £9. 

Besides,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Bib'graphy,  definition  of,  162, 

Blair,  Dr.  Hugh,  quoted,  l^,  66, 
94,  137;  referred  to,  136. 

Blicky,  use  of  the  word,  30. 

Bonanza,  use  of  the  word,  29. 

Bonmot,  [bo'ngmo].  A  witty 
reply.  Literally,  a  "  good 
word." 

Brace,  use  of,  122. 

Brackets,  use  of,  123. 

Breve,  use  of,  123. 


256 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Briti9isms  are  forms  of  exprps- 
sion  peculiar  to  Great  Britain. 

Brougham  [broom],  referred  to, 
193. 

Bro-wn,  Dr.  Thomas,  referred 
to,  146. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  quoted, 
153  ;  referred  to,  198. 

Buffon,  quoted,  24. 

Bull,  156. 

Buncombe,  [bunkum]  is  talk- 
ing for  show,  or  speaking  to  a 
constituency  rather  than  to  the 
purpose. 

Burke,  quoted,  90,  158 ;  referred 
to,  69,  76,  139, 146,  193. 

Burle'sque,  [lesk],  155. 

Burlet'ta.     An  operatic  farce. 

Burns,  referred  to,  197. 

Burton,  story  by,  57. 

Butler,  Samuel,  referred  to,  198. 

Byron,  referred  to,  198. 


Cablegram,  use  of  the  word,  32. 

Cadence,  69. 

Qaesural  pause,  or  (^aesura.     A 

pause  in  the  middle,  or  near 

the  middle  of  a  verse. 
Calculate,  use  of  the  word,  35. 
Campbell,  Dr.  George,  quoted, 

28,  54. 
Campbell  J  Thomas,  quoted,  80  ; 

referred  to,  198. 
Cant  is  the  peculiar  language  of 

a  class,  solemn  and  empty,  and 

implying  more  than  is  felt. 
Cantos  are  the  chief  divisions 

of  long  poems. 
Capability,  use  of  the  word,  29. 
Capitals,  value  of,  102 ;  use  of, 

124. 
Caption.    A  caption  is  a  head- 


ing, as  to  a  chaptc.  This  use 
of  the  word  is  an  Americanism. 

Caret,  use  of  the,  122. 

Carlyle,  quoted,  13. 

Castlereagh,  Lord,  quoted,  92. 

Casualty,  use  of  ihe  word,  38. 

Catachre'sis.  A  misused  or 
far-fetched  metaplior. 

Catiline,  his  imagined  address 
to  the  Senate,  158. 

Catchwords  are  the  first  words 
of  a  page,  printed  below  the 
last  line  of  the  preceding  page, 
in  the  right  hand  corner  of  the 
page.  They  were  formerly 
used  in  almost  all  books,  but 
are  now  very  seldom  used. 

QJedilla,  use  of  the,  122. 

Channing,  W.  E  ,  quoted,  121. 

Chatham,  Lord,  quoted,  88  ;  re- 
ferred to,  69,  193. 

Chesterfield,  Lord,  referred  to, 
17L 

Character,  use  of  the  word,  35. 

Choria'mbus.  A  foot  of  four 
syllables,  the  first  and  laet  be- 
ing long,  the  others  short ;  as. 

Chronicle,  definition  of,  162. 

Cicero,  his  introductions,  18. 

Circumlocu'tion,  63  ;  a  means 
of  variation,  95. 

Clause,  defined,  44  ;  adverbial, 
56;  use  of  relative,  60;  use  of 
supplementary,  60 ;  kinds  of, 
99;  dependent,  108;  added, 
110  ;  supplementary,  112. 

Clearness,  importance  of,  53; 
rules  for,  54. 

Clerk,  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Cli'max,  89. 

Coincidence,  unexpected,  a 
source  of  wit,  156. 


INDEX  AND   QL0IS8ABY. 


Ji5? 


Coleridge  [kol-rij],  quoted,  26, 
138,  152  ;  referred  to,  146. 

Collo'quialisms,  30. 

Colon,  rules  for,  111. 

Comedy,  197. 

Comma,  rules  for,  104. 

Commendation,  use  of  the 
word,  r->8. 

Common  dependence,  clauses 
having,  111. 

Comparative  degree,  50. 

Composition  (from  the  Latin 
componere,  to  put  together) 
means  primarily  a  putting  to- 
gether. Hence,  (1)  the  act  of 
putting  together,  or  writing 
down  the  ideas  belonging  to- 
gether ;  (2)  the  result  of  this  act, 
or  a  writing  on  a  given  sub- 
ject; (3)  the  art  of  literary 
construction.  Parts  of  a,  16  ; 
kinds  of,  161. 

Complete  sentences,  how 
pointed,  113. 

Compound  sentences,  rules 
for,  51. 

Con9ise,  expressing  much  in 
few  words  ;  applied  to  style. 

Concord,  45. 

Concrete  Ideas,  value  of, 
148. 

Conclusion,  rules  for,  19. 

Confess,  use  of  the  word,  39. 

Conjunctives,  table  of,  74. 

Connective  words,  64. 

Conscience,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Consciousness,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Construe,  use  of  the  word,  34 

Construct,  use  of  the  word,  34. 

Contemptible,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 


Contemptuous,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Contingent,  use  of  the  verb,  49. 

Continued  sentences,  how 
pointed,  107. 

Conversation,  in  invention,  12. 

CS'pula,  48. 

Copy,  preparation  of,  129. 

Country,  devotion  to,  152. 

Couple,  use  of  the  vrord,  35. 

Cousin  [koo-za'ng],  quoted,  139, 
146. 

Cowper,  quoted,  96  ;  referred 
to,  198. 

Crabbe,  referred  to,  38,  198. 

Cre'tic.  A  foot  consisting  of 
one  short  syllable  between  two 
long  ones  ;  as  —  ^^  —. 

Criticism,  definition  of,  134 
function  of,  134  ;  value  of,  134 
kinds  of  literary,  135 ;  real,  136 
logical,  136;  verbal,  136 
aesthetic,  136;  historic,  136 
scientific,  136  ;  elements  of 
136  ;  standard  of,  141. 

Critique  [kri-teek'],  134,  163. 

Crowding,  caution  against,  60. 

Curtius,  Marcus,  story  of,  152. 


Da'ctyl,  201. 

Damon  and  Pythias,  story  of, 
153. 

Dangerous  situations,  a  source 
of  the  sublime,  1 58. 

Dash,  rules  for  the,  116 ;  paren- 
thetical, 117. 

Day,  his  theory  of  aesthetic  emo- 
tions, 146. 

Declarative  use  of  the  verb, 
49. 

Deity,  names  of,  how  written, 
126. 


258 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Demean,  use  of  the  word,  35. 

DemS'stlienes,  referred  to,  5, 
193. 

Denouement  [de-noo-mun^]. 
The  solution  of  a  plot,  or  the 
final  catastrophe.  Literally, 
the  "  untying." 

Dependent  clauses,  108. 

Dependent  Expressions,  118. 

Derision,  use  of  the  word,  91. 

Description,  qualities  of  a  good, 
164  ;  the  process  of,  165. 

Design,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Desperate,  use  of  the  word,  41. 

De  Vere,  referred  to,  CO. 

Devotion,  personal,  a  source  of 
pathos,  159. 

Dickens,  referred  to,  159,  170. 

Diction,  25 ;  variation  of,  94. 

Didactic  poetry,  197. 

Die'resis,  the  mark  in  punctua- 
tion, 122. 

Dignity  in  oratory,  189. 

Diffuse',  expressing  little  in 
many  words  ;  applied  to  style. 

Diligent,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Direct  address  in  oratory, 
189. 

Direct  questions,  114. 

Direct  statement,  98. 

Disadvantage,  use  of  the  word, 
41. 

Discourse,  (from  the  Latin  dis- 
currh'e,  to  ran  about)  means 
primarily  the  power  of  the 
mind  to  run  about  from  one 
part  of  a  subject  to  another. 
Hence,  (1)  oral  treatment  of 
some  topic  ;  (3)  a  formal  dis- 
cussion whether  oral  or  writ- 

,  ten;  (3)  the  use  of  language 
generally  in  the  communica- 
tion of  thought. 


Discussion,  management  of,  18 ; 
in  an  oration,  191, 

Dissertation,  163. 

Distich  [di's-tik],  203. 

Distrust,  use  of  the  work,  41. 

Donate,  use  of  the  word,  32. 

Double -entendre  [doobl-6ng- 
tongdr].  An  expression  ad- 
mitting of  more  than  one  in- 
terpretation. 

Doubt,  expressions  of,  how 
pointed,  115. 

Do-wle,  use  of  the  word,  29. 

Dramatic  Poetry,  107. 

Dryden,  quoted,  93;  referred  to, 
196. 

Duode'9imo.  The  name  ap- 
plied to  a  book  formed  by  fold- 
ing the  sheet  of  printer's  paper 
into  twelve  leaves.  It  is  usually 
indicated  thus  :  12°  or  12  mo. 


Echo,  in  elocution,  117. 

Eclogue  [e'k-log].  A  pastoral 
poem,  in  which  shepherds 
meet,  and  carry  on  a  dialogue. 

Edify,  use  of  the  word,  34. 

Elegies,  198. 

Ellesmere,  Lord,  quoted,  93. 

ElH'psis  [an  omission]  of  verb, 
109,  how  marked,  123,  in  poetry, 
201. 

Elocution,  relation  of  to  Rhe- 
toric, 1. 

Eloquence,  defined,  163  ;  Web- 
ster's     description     of,     187  ; 

^  Shedd's  definition  of,  190. 

Em.  A  portion  of  space  in  a  line 
of  printed  matter  the  width  of 
an  old  m.  Now  used  as  a  unit 
of  measure  in  estimating  the 
amount  of  matter  on  a  page. 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


259 


Emblem,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  quoted,  26. 

Emotion,  expressed  by  fic^ures, 
80 ;  expressions  of,  how  pointed, 
116. 

Emphasis,  64  ;  marks  of,  122. 

Enallage  [e-nri'lla-je].  A  sub- 
stitution of  one  word,  gender, 
number,  person,  case,  voice, 
mood,  or  tense  for  another. 

Elnergy,  meaning  of,  62;  rules 
for,  63  ;  of  style  in  oratory,  190. 

English  language,  composite 
character  of,  31 ;  English  and 
Latin  sentences  compared,  55  ; 
harmony  of  the  language, 
67. 

Enough,  use  of  the  word,  37. 

Enthused,  use  of  the  word,  29. 

Epanale^psis.  A  form  of  speech 
in  which  the  same  word  or 
expression  is  repeated  after  in 
tervening  matter. 

Bpa'nodos.  This  has  two  senses : 
(1)  A  form  of  speech  in  which 
words  are  repeated  in  inverse 
order.  (2)  A  return  to  the  main 
heads  or  leading  theme  of  a" dis- 
course, after  a  digression. 

Epanortho'sis  is  a  form  of 
speech  in  which  something  is 
recalled  and  stated  more 
strongly ;  as,  Very  unkind. 
Unkind,  did  I  say  ?  most  in- 
famous ! 

Epic  poetry,  196. 

Epigram,  as  a  figure,  90  :  as  a 
form  of  wit,  156. 

Epilogue  [e'p-i-16g].     This  has 
two  senses :  (1)  a  short  speech  ^ 
or  poem  addressed  to  the  au- 
dience at   the  conclusion  of  a 
play.    (2)  The  closing  part  of  a 


discourse,  containing  a  recapit- 
ulation of  the  principal  points. 

Episodes  are  separate  narra- 
tives or  digressions  introduced 
into  a  story  of  greater  length 
for  the  sake  of  variety. 

Epithets  are  adjectives  describ- 
ing some  quality  or  relation 
specially  belonging  to  a  person, 
or  thing ;  as,  a  bright  color,  a 
green  tree,  a  kind  man. 

Epitome.  A  brief  compendium, 
containing  the  substance  of  a 
larger  book  or  a  number  of 
books. 

Epizeux'is  is  a  form  of  speech 
in  which  a  word  is  repeated 
with  emphasis. 

BpopcBia  [ep-o-pe'-ya].  The  his- 
tory or  fable  on  which  an  epic 
poem  is  built. 

Essay,  definition  of,  162. 

Etymology,  value  of,  27. 

Eulogy  [yu-lo-je].  A  speech  or 
writing  commendatory  of  some 
character.  Specifically,  a  laud- 
atory funeral  oration.  A  pane- 
gyric. 

Euphemism  [yu'-fe-mizm],  defi- 
nition of,  95. 

Euphony  [yu'-fo  ne]  is  agree- 
ableness  of  sound. 

Everett,  Edward,  quoted,  119. 

Except,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Exclama'tion,  as  a  figure  of 
speech,  87  ;  the  point,  origin 
of,  103  ;  rules  for,  114. 

Exordium,  in  an  oration,  IPO. 

Experimentalize,  use  of  the 
word,  32. 

Exposition,  referred  to,  189. 

Expression,  an,  defined,  44 ; 
simplicity  of  in  the  sublime,  151. 


260 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 


F. 

Fable  and  parable  differ  chiefly 
in  this :  the  fable  recounts  what 
is  impossible,  if  literally  inter- 
preted  ;  the  parable  is  gener- 
ally literally  possible. 

Failings,  human,  a  source  of 
humor,  157. 

Falsehood,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Falseness,  use  of  the  word,  34. 

Falsity,  use  of  the  word,  34. 

Farce,  defined,  197. 

Fashions  in  literature,  142. 

Feelings,  the  management  of, 
190  :  change  of  the,  192  ;  in  an 
orator,  192. 

Fertility  in  expedients  neces- 
sary to  an  orator,  193. 

Fiat,  use  of  the  word,  31. 

Figurative  language,  value  of 
to  energy,  66;  in  oratory,  lilO. 

Fi'gures,  defined,  87 ;  classi- 
fied, 77;  explained,  77,  78; 
origin  of,  78 ;  advantages  of, 
79,  80  ;  kinds  of,  81  :  rules  for, 
91,  92  ;  contribute  to  beauty  of 
style,  149. 

Folding  letters,  diagrams  of, 
185. 

Folio.  Applied  to  books  formed 
of  sheets  so  folded  as  to  make 
two  leaves.  The  largest  size 
of  volume. 

Foot,  a,  in  poetry,  200. 

Force,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Forge tfuluess,  use  of  the  word, 
40. 

Foster,  John,  his  mode  of  writ- 
ing, 38. 

Fox,  quoted,  38. 

Freedom  of  expression,  a 
.  source  of  humor,  157. 


Friends,  devotion  to,  often  sub- 
lime, 153. 

Frigidity  [frl-jl'd  i-te].  As  ap- 
plied to  style,  a  coM  and  aflect- 
ed  manner,  wanting  in  proper 
feeling  and  interest. 

Fr6ntispiece.  An  ornamental 
engraving  in  the  beginning  of  a 
book. 

Fro-ward,  disuse  of  the  word, 
29. 

Fustian  [fil'st-yan].  A  bombas- 
tic, inflated  style  of  writing  or 
speaking.  So  called  from  a 
cheap  kind  of  cloth,  to  which 
it  is  analogous. 


6^'lli9ism.  A  French  idiom. 
Applied  to  words  and  con- 
structions borrowed  from  or 
imitating  those  of  the  French 
language. 

Gender,  in  personification,  84. 

Genesis,  first  words  of,  an  ex- 
ample of  the  sublime,  151.  ^ 

Gibbon,  quoted,  14 ;  referred 
to,  169. 

Gifford,  referred  to,  198. 

Goldsmith,  i^tyle  of,  23 ; 
rhvthm  of,  69 ;  quoted,  150, 
166. 

Graham,  Q.  F.,  referred  to,  38  ; 
remarks  on  harmony,  67 ;  on 
hyperbole,  87. 

Grammar,  relation  of  to  Rhe- 
toric, 1. 

Grandi'loquence.  A  lofty  style 
of  speaking  or  writing. 

Grattan,  his  personal  disadvan- 
tages, 193. 

Giay,  Thomas,  his  style,  23; 
referred  to,  196. 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


2G1 


H. 

Hall,     Robert,     his    clioice    of 

words,  38. 
Hamilton,  Sir  Wm. ,  his  theory 

of  aesthetic  emotions,  146. 
Harmonious   language,   value 

of,  148. 
Harmony,    value    of    to    style, 

66  ;   in  the  English  language, 

67  ;    rules  for,  67. 
Hand.     See  "  Index." 
Harris,  paragraph  from,  76. 
Hasten,  use  of  the  word,  40. 
Hawthorne,  quoted,  157. 
Headings,  of  essays,  125  ;  how 

printed,  114,  118. 

Head-lines.  The  lines  at  the 
top  of  the  page,  as  the  words 
"  Index  and  Glossary  "  on  this 
page. 

Hearken,  disuse  of  the  word,  28. 

He'mistich  [stick].  Half  a  po- 
etic verse,  or  an  incomplete 
verse. 

Hia'tus.  The  concurrence  of 
successive  sounds  requiring  a 
momentary  pause  in  passing 
from  one  to  the  other. 

Hibe'rnigism.  An  Irish  idiom. 
A  word  or  construction  bor- 
rowed from  or  imitating  the 
speech  of  an  Irishman. 

"  Hifalu'tin."  A  word  used  to 
signify  a  stilted  and  unnatural 
style  of  writing  or  speaking. 
Big  words  for  small  thoughts. 

History,  definition  of,  162. 

Hogarth,  referred  to,  146. 

Homer,  compared  with  Virgil, 
78;  referred  to,  144,  196-5 
quoted,  153. 

Honor,  devotion  to,  often  sub- 
lime, 153. 


Hopeless,  use  of  the  word,  41. 

Horace,  his  law  of  use,  28 ; 
referred  to,  198. 

Howard,  John,  referred  to,  159. 

Hume,  referred  to,  139  ;  quoted, 
146. 

Humorous,  the,  explained,  156. 

Hurry,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Hutcheson,  referred  to,  139. 

Hymn  meters,  204. 

Hyper,  use  of  the  word,  29. 

Hyper'baton.  A  figure  of  syn- 
tax, in  which  the  natural  order 
of  words  or  sentences  is 
changed. 

Hyper 'bole,  87. 

Hypercri'ti^ism  is  an  exces- 
sive severity  of  criticism. 
Literally,  over-criticism. 

Hyphen  [hi'-fen],  use  of,  123. 

Hys'teron-proteron  has  two 
senses:  (1)  The  placing  of  a 
word  first  that  should  occur 
later.  (2)  Putting  the  conclu- 
sion before  the  premises. 

I. 

I,  the  pronoun,  how  written, 
128. 

lam'bus,  201. 

Ideal  presence,  value  of,  88. 

Ideas,  abstract  and  concrete,  61. 

Imagery  [i'm-aj-re].     Represen- 

[      tations   of  ideas   by  means  of 

sensible  objects.     The   images 

I      suggested     to    the     mind    by 

!      words. 

j  Imitation,    value  cf  in  acquir- 
!     ing  taste,  144. 

:  Impropriety.      A    violation    of 
j     propriety. 

Incongruity,  a  source  of  wit, 
155. 


262 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


Indignation,  a  source  of  sub- 
limity, 153. 

Indirect  statement,  98, 

Industrious,  use  of  the  word, 
40. 

Injury,  use  of  the  word,  41. 

Intellect,  etymology  of,  79. 

Intention,  use  of  tlie  word,  40. 

Interjections,  how  pointed,  115. 

Interroga'tion,  the  figure  of 
rhetoric,  90  ;  when  forcible,  97 ; 
point  of,  103,  114. 

Introduction,  rules  for,  17 ; 
notes  of,  176. 

Invention,  definition  of,  5  ;  not 
strictly  a  part  of  Rhetoric,  5 ; 
processes  of,  6. 

Inversions,  in  ]X)etry,  199. 

Invitations,  specimens  of,  1 74. 

Irony,  [i'-ron-e],  90. 

Irving,  quoted,  38,  159 ;  his 
rhythm,  69. 

Isocolon,  A  continued  antithe- 
sis. For  example,  see  tlie  com- 
parison of  Homer  and  Virgil,  73. 

It,  expletive  use  of.  98. 

Italics,  use  of,  123. 


Jeffrey,  Lord,  quoted,  89,  146. 
Jejune.       Applied      to      style. 

Empty,  dry,  void  of  interest. 
Job,  quotation  from,  154. 
Johnson,      Dr.      Samuel,      his 

rhythm,  69  ;  referred  to,  198. 
Joking    oneself,    a    source    of 

humor,  157. 
Jouffiroy,  referred  to,  146. 


Karnes,  Lord,  on  ideal  presence, 

89. 
Keats,  referred  to,  197. 


Kerns,  use  of  the  word,  29. 
Knowledge  of  men  necessary 
to  an  orator,  193. 

L. 

Laborious,  use  of  the  word,  40. 
Lacb'nic.       Applied    to    style, 

from  the  Lacones,  or  Spartans, 

who  were  celebrated  for  their 

short     and      pithy      answers. 

Hence  brief,  terse,  concise. 
Lampoo'u.     A    bitter    personal 

satire. 
Language,  capricious  character 

of,  33.     See  English. 
Latin,    compared   with     Saxon, 

39;   character    of    derivatives 

from,  94. 
Lay,  use  of  the  word,  48. 
Leads,  explained,  123. 
Leaders,  use  of,  123. 
Lectures,  a  kind  of  oration,  188. 
Leniency,  use  of  the  word,  33. 
Letters,  purpose  of,  170  ;  kinds 

of,    171  ;  news,    172 ;  didactic, 

171  ;    oflBcial,     172 ;     business, 

172  ;  of  introduction,  173  ;  of 
friendship,  172:  parts  of  a, 
177  ;  general  rules  for,  184. 

Licenses,  poetic,  199. 
Lie,  use  of  the  word,  48. 
Like,  use  of  the  word,  36. 
Literary  property,  15. 
Li'totes,  88. 
Liturgy,  style  of,  95. 
Locke,  style  of,  23. 
Locomote,  use  of  the  word,  29. 
Logic,  relation  of  to  Rhetoric,  1. 
Longfellcw,  allegory  from.  84 ; 

quoted,  159  ;  referred  to,  197. 
Longinus,  referred  to,  151. 
Loose  sentences,  61. 
Ly'rio  poetry,  195. 


INDEX  AND    OLOSSAEY. 


363 


M. 

Macaulay,  style  of,  24;  refer- 
red  to,  169,  197. 

Macron,  123. 

Madrigal.  A  little  amatory 
poem,  expressing  a  tender  and 
simple  thought. 

Mannerisms,  23. 

Manuscripts,  preparation  of, 
101. 

Mask.  197. 

Materials,  importance  of  col- 
lecting, 11. 

Matthews,  referred  to,  26. 

Melodious  words,  67. 

Melodrama,  197. 

Memoir  [me'm-wor],  162. 

Meta'bole  is  the  repetition  of 
similar  ideas. 

Metale'psis  is  the  continuation 
of  a  trope  in  several  senses,  or 
the  union  of  tropes  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind  in  one  word. 

Ma'taphor,  88,  92. 

Meta'thesis  is  a  figure  of  onho- 
jrraphy  by  which  letters  are 
transposed. 

Me'ter,  200. 

Methods  of  arrangement,  19, 
21. 

Metb'nymy,  86. 

Metrical  Romance,  196. 

Metrical  Tale,  196. 

Milton,  simile  from,  82  ;  referred 
to,  141,  144,  196, 

Mime'sis  is  an  imitation.  As  a 
figure  of  orthography,  it  is  an 
imitation  of  a  mispronuncia- 
tion. 

Mirabeau,  quoted,  26. 

Mock-ep'ic,  196. 

Mockery,  use  of  the  word,  91. 

Mock-hero'ic,  155. 


Monarchial,  use  of  the  word,  83. 

Monotony,  cause  of  in  para- 
graphs, 72  ;  in  sentences,  94. 

Montesquieu,  referred  to,  171. 

Moore,  'Ihomas,  his  use  of 
words,  38. 

Morality  in  the  use  of  quota- 
tion marks,  120. 

Moral  purpose,  a  source  of 
sublimity,  152. 

Moral  sublime,  the,  152. 

Motif,  in  literature,  is  the  in- 
tention of  the  literary  artist. 

Mutual,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Mystery,  a  source  of  the  sub- 
lime, 154. 

N. 

Naivete  [nah-ev-ta]  is  an  unaf- 
fected simplicity  in  style.  The 
opposite  of  artificiality. 

Napoleon,  description  of,  148. 

Narrative,  qualities  of  a,  167. 

Naturalization  of  words,  81. 

Neglect,  use  of  the  word,  85. 

Negligence,  use  of  the  word, 
35. 

Nick-names,  181. 

Nominative  case,  use  of,  49. 

Notes,  described,  173  ;  to  ladies, 
174;  specimens  of,  175. 

Noun,  collective  defined,  45. 

Novel,  definition  of,  162. 

Numerals,  Roman,  how  written,  j 
128. 

Numerical  figures,  how  pointed, 
109. 


O.  and    oh,   diflference  between, 

115  ;  how  written,  128. 
Obi'tuary.        A       bioprraphical 

sketch  of   a   deceased  person, 


264 


INDEX  AND  0L0S8ART, 


designed  to  give  information 
about  his  life  and  character. 

Objective  case,  use  of,  49. 

Oblivion,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Observation,  n  invention,  12; 
use  of  the  word,  34. 

Observance,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Octave,  in  a  stanza,  204. 

Octa'vo.  Applied  to  books  com- 
posed of  sheets  so  folded  as 
to  form  eight  leaves  of  printing 
paper.  Usually  written  8^  or 
8  vo. 

Odes,  196. 

Odysseus,  his  shipwreck  de- 
scribed, 153. 

Omissions,  how  marked,  118. 

Omnibus,  use  of  the  word,  31. 

Onomatopoeia  [pe-yah],  70. 

Onus  pr5bandi.  Latin  for,  "the 
burden  of  proving." 

Opera.     A  musical  drama. 

Oration,  ancient  division  of, 
17 ;  the  nature  of  an,  186  ;  the 
qualities  of  an,  186  ;  parts  of 
an, 190. 

Orator,  the  qualifications  of  an, 
193. 

Oratory,  kinds  of,  187. 

Order  in  a  sentence,  54. 

Ossian,  his  cadences,  69. 

Ottava  rima,  204. 

Oxymo'ron.  A  form  of  speech 
which  unites  words  of  a  contrary 
meaning,  and  seems  to  be  a 
contradiction;  as  "A  pious 
fraud." 


Painful,  use  of  the  word,  34. 
Panegyric  [jir-ikj.    See  Eulogy. 
Parable.     See  Fable. 


Paragoge  [go-jeej  adds  a  letter 
or  syllable  to  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as  vasty  for  vast ;  with- 
oxiten  for  without. 

Paragraph  [pa'r-a-graf],  impor 
tance  of,  71  ;  rules  for,  72; 
first  sentence  of,  72  ;  how  made, 
72  ;  last  sentence  in,  73  ;  ex- 
amples of,  75  ;  printers  mark 
for,  123. 

Paralei'psis  is  a  form  of  speech 
in  which  the  speaker  pretends 
to  pass  by  without  mentioning 
that  which  he  in  reality  is 
making  conspicuous. 

Parenthetical  expressions,  105. 

Pare'nthesis,  61,  62,  119. 

Pa'rody,  156. 

Paronomasia  [ma'-zhi-a],  156. 

Particles  are  words  which  are 
not  inflt^cted,  and  which  play  a 
subordinate  part  in  a  sentence, 
as  prepositions  and  conjunc- 
tions.    Splitting  of,  04. 

Parts  transposed,  108. 

Pascal,  quoted,  16. 

Pasquina'de.     a  lampoon. 

Pathetic,  illustrated,  158. 

Penitence,  use  of  the  word,  30. 

Periodic  sentences,  61. 

Period,  rules  for,  113. 

Periphrasis  [pe-ri'f-ra-sis],  A 
circumlocution. 

Peroration,  190. 

Personifica'tion,  83,  127. 
i  Perspicu'ity.     Clearness. 
1  Persuasion,  188. 
I  Phenomenon,  use  of  the  word, 
I      31. 

Phillips,  Charles,  quoted,  148. 

Phrase  [fraze],  44. 

Pitt,  William,  his  use  of  words, 
38 ;  his  learning,  193 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


265 


Pla'giarism,  [ji-ar-izm]  is  an  act 
of  literary  theft.  See  Literary 
property,  15. 

Plato,  referred  to,  146. 

Plead;  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Ple'onasm,  [azm].  A  redun- 
dancy. 

Plenty,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Plo'ce  is  a  form  of  speech  in 
which  a  word  is  made  to  sig- 
nify not  so  much  the  thing  of 
which  it  is  a  proper  designation, 
but  some  predominant  quality 
of  it ;  as  "  In  all  this  contest  he 
has  been  a  man,  indeed." 

Pliny,  referred  to,  171. 

Plot,  explained,  1H8  ;  the  quali- 
ties of,  169. 

Plotiuus,  quoted,  145. 

Plurals,  foreign,  list  of,  45. 

Plurals,  words  having  two,  list 
of,  46. 

Poem,  the  nature  of  a,  194. 

Poems,  kinds  of,  195. 

Poetic  licenses,  199, 

Poetry,  defined,  161  ;  the  method 
of,  198. 

Points,  classified,  103.  See 
Punctuation. 

Pollock,  Robt'rt,  referred  to, 
198. 

Poly'ptoton.  A  form  of  speech 
in  which  a  word  is  repeated  in 
different  forms,  genders,  num- 
bers, cases,  etc. 

Polysy'ndeton,  64. 

Pope,  quoted,  29  ;  referred  to, 
196,  198. 

Popularity  of  presentation  in 
oratory,  189.  ^ 

Power,  representations  of,  sub- 
lime, 152. 

Praise,  use  of  the  word,  38. 


Precji'sion,  [zhun],  defined,  37 ; 
rules  for,  38. 

Predicate,  use  of  the  word,  35, 
43. 

Predict,  use  of  the  word,  34. 

Prepositions  with  verbs,  list  of, 
36. 

Prescott,  referred  to,  1G9. 

Prevent,  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Preventative,  use  of  the  word, 
33. 

Pride,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Printer's  marks,  121. 

Proof,  correction  of,  129  ;  reading 
of,  130,  marks  for  correcting, 
133  ;  specimens  of,  132. 

Prole 'psis  is  a  form  of  speech 
in  which  objections  are  antici- 
pated. 

Prologue  [pro-log].  An  intro- 
duction, especially  the  intro- 
duction to  a  dramatic  perform- 
ance. Literally,  a  "  word  be- 
fore." 

Pronouns,  use  of,  51  ;  ambi- 
guity of,  56  ;  use  of  in  poetry, 
200.* 

Proper  names,  126. 

Property,  literary,  15. 

Propriety,  83. 

Prose,  defined,  161, 

Prosopceia  [pe  yah]  includes 
personification,  apostrophe,  and 
vision,  and  hence  is  a  more 
general  name  for  all  of  these 
figures. 

PrS'sthesis  prefixes  a  letter 
or  a  syllable  to  a  word  ;  as  he- 
clouded  for  clouded. 

Proven,  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Prb'verb.  A  common  sayingr. 
Literally,  a  "  word  before,"  and 
so  an  old  saying. 


266 


INDEX  AND    GLOSSARY. 


Provi'n9ialisms  are  terms  be- 
longing to  some  province  or 
locality,  30. 

Piiii,  156. 

Punctuation,  value  of,  101  ; 
purpose  of,  102  ;  not  elocution- 
ary, 103  ;  history  of,  104. 

Purity,  28. 

Purpose,  use  of  the  word,  40. 

Py'rrhic.  A  foot  consisting  of 
two  short  syllables  ;  as  ^  ^. 

Py'thias  and  Damon,  story  of, 
152. 


Quadrat,  133. 

Quantity-marks,  128. 

Quarto.  Applied  to  a  book 
formed  of  sheets  so  folded  as 
to  make  four  leaves  of  each 
sheet.  Usually  written  4^,  or 
4to. 

Quatrain,  208. 

Queries,  how  pointed  when  in- 
serted in  the  text,  120. 

Questions,  value  of  in  inven- 
tion, 7,  14;  direct,  114. 

Quintiliau's  remark  on  clear- 
ness, 54. 

Quotations,  brief,  how  pointed, 
109,  113  ;  marks  of,  how  used, 
123. 


Raise,  use  of  the  word,  48. 

Randolph,  John,  quoted,  80. 

Rant.  Boisterous  and  high- 
sounding  but  empty  declama- 
tion. 

Reading  in  invention,  12  ; 
should  follow  reflection,  14 ; 
rules  for,  14. 

Rscapitulation,  value  of,  19. 


Recasting,  a  means  of  varia- 
tion, 96. 

Rediindancy,  63. 

Reference-marks,  133. 

Reflection,  in  invention,  12. 

Regulus,  story  of,  153. 

Reid,  Dr.  Thomas,  quoted,  146. 

Relative  clauses,  60,  106. 

Repartee,  156. 

Repentance,  use  of  the  word 
39. 

Respectfully,  use  of  the  word, 
34. 

Respectively,  use  of  the  word, 
35. 

Restrictive  expressions,  105. 

Resurrect,  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Retort  is  a  quick  and  witty 
reply,  in  which  charges  cr  in- 
sinuations are  returned.  It 
generally  lacks  the  good  humor 
that  is  consistent  with  repaitee. 

Revie-w,  definition  of  a,  163. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  referred 
to,  146. 

Rhapsody  [rap-so  de].  This 
word  is   used  in   two   senses  : 

(1)  A    small   part   of  an     epic 
poem,   suitable   for    recitation. 

(2)  A  rambling,   disconnected 
composition. 

Rhetoric,  defined,  1  ;  utility  of, 
2  ;  scientific  division  of,  4. 

Rhetorical  pauses,  how  point- 
ed. 116. 

Rho'dian  style.  Applied  to  a 
style  of  oratory  midway  be- 
tween the  florid  and  diffuse 
Asiatic,  and  the  chaste  and 
concise  Attic. 

Rhyme,  [rime]  alliterative,  202  ; 
assonantal,  202 ;  consonantal, 
202  ;  masculine,  203  :  feminine. 


mJDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


267 


202 ;    triple,    203 ;     sectional, 

203  ;  royal,  203. 
Rhythm  [ritlim],  importance  of, 

08;  Russell's  remarks  on,  69 ; 

a  cause  of  emotion,  195. 
Richter,  Jean  Paul,  quoted,  14. 
Ridicule,  use  of  the  word,  91. 
Rise,  use  of  the  word,  48. 
Rogers,  Samuel,  referred  to,  198, 
Roget  [ro-zha'],  referred  to,  38. 
Rodomonta'de.    Vain  boasting. 

Rant. 
Romance,  definition  of,  162. 
Ruskin,    John,     titles    of     his 

books,  11  ;  quoted,  138  ;  refer- 
red to.  139,146. 
Russell,  William,  his  remarks 

on  rhythm,  69. 


Sarcasm,  use  of  the  word,  91. 

Sa'tire,  use  of  the  word,  91. 

Satirical  poetry,  198. 

Saxon,  compared  with  Latin, 
39 ;  character  of  derivatives 
from,  94. 

Scanning  is  the  process  of  re- 
solving verse  into  its  metrical 
elements. 

Schelling,  referred  to,  146. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  quoted,  166; 
referred  to,  168,  169,  196. 

Section,  printer's  mark  for,  123. 

Sects,  names  of,  how  written, 
127. 

Self-possession  in  an  orator, 
194. 

Sami-colon,  rules  for,  109. 

Seneca,  referred  to,  171. 

Sentence,  defined,  42  ;  simple, 
43  ;  compound,  43  ;  complex, 
43  ;  natural  order  of  words  in, 
54;  loose,  61 ;  periodic,  61. 


Sentences,  importance  of  con- 
necting, 52  ;  connection  of,  74. 

Sentimental  sublime,  152. 

Sermo9inatio  [ser  mos'-i-nil- 
she-oj.  A  species  of  dialogue 
with  one's  self,  in  which  the 
question  is  at  once  followed  by 
the  answer ;  as,  "  Shall  we 
retreat  ?  The  enemy  are  in  the 
rear.  Shall  we  halt?  If  we 
do,  starvation  awaits  us.  Shall 
we  advance?  It  is  the  only 
resort  that  remains." 

Sermons,  a  kind  of  oration,  188. 

Sestette,  204. 

Set,  use  of  the  word,  48. 

Shaftesbury,  Lord,  referred  to, 
146. 

Shakespeare,  his  diction,  26 ; 
quoted,  91,  149,  160,  194;  re- 
ferred to,  142, 145, 196,  197. 

Shall  and  "Will,  use  of,  48. 

Shedd,  W.  G,  T.,  quoted,  190. 

Shelley,  quoted,  149. 

Side-heads  are  headings  run 
in  the  line. 

Si'mile,  definition  of,  82. 

Singist,  use  of  the  word,  33. 

Sit,  use  of  the  word,  48. 

Smith,  George,  his  work  on 
synonyms  referred  to,  38 ; 
Horace,  referred  to,  157 ;  Syd- 
ney, quoted,  158. 

Smollett,  quoted,  92. 

Suits,  use  of  the  word,  30. 

Society,  value  of  to  diction, 
27. 

Solecism  [so'1-e-sizm].  A  vio- 
lation of  the  rules  of  syntax. 
It  is  a  violation  of  good  usage 
in  the  structure  of  sentences, 
as  a  barbarism  is  a  violation  of 
good  usage  in  the  use  of  words. 


268 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY. 


So  named  from  the  SjU,  a 
people  of  Attica,  who  colonized 
in  Cilicia,  and  lost  the  purity  of 
their  language. 

Sougs,  196. 

Soniiets,  196  ;  stanza  of,  204. 

Sound  and  sense,  70. 

Southey,  quoted,  147. 

Spec,  words  from  the  root,  79. 

Speciality,  use  of  the  word,  83. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  quoted,  303  ; 
his  stanza,  203. 

Splitting  of  Particles,  64. 

Spondee,  200. 

Squinting  construction,  56. 

Stand-point,  use  of  the  word, 
32. 

Stanza,  203. 

Sterne,  his  rhythm,  69. 

Strength,  40. 

Strong  verbs,  47. 

Stro'phe.  A  system  of  verses  in 
lyrical  poetry.  These  were 
Bung  in  the  ancient  chorus 
while  marching  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  the  antistrophe  was 
sung  on  the  return. 

Style,  definition  of,  23  ;  kinds 
of,  23 ;  importance  of,  24 ; 
general  law  of,  25  ;  vividness 
of,  39 ;  style  coupe,  73 ;  style 
periodique,  73. 

Sub-divided  members,  how 
pointed,  110,  111. 

Subject — of  a  composition — 
importance  of  choosing,  6  ;  how 
to  obtain,  7 ;  qualities  of,  7  ; 
adapting,  9 ;  statement  of,  10 ; 
—of  a  sentence — compound, 
defined,  47. 

Sublime,  the,  explained,  151. 

Substitution  in  poetry,  200. 

Sufficient,  use  of  the  word,  37. 


Sumner,  Charles,  his  culture, 
193. 

Superlative  degree,  50,  63. 

Superscription  of  a  letter,  how 
written,  177. 

Supplementary  clauses,  60, 
112. 

Suspense,  means  of,  61. 

Suspicion,  use  of  the  word,  41. 

Swift,  his  rhythm,  69. 

Sylle'psis.  'Ihe  construing  of 
words  according  to  their  mean- 
ing rather  than  according  to 
their  strictly  grammatical  re- 
lations. 

Sym'ploce.  A  repetition  of  a 
word  at  the  beginning  and 
another  at  the  end  of  succes- 
sive clauses  or  sentences. 

Sy'nchysis.  A  derangement  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

Sy'ncope  drops  a  letter  from 
the  middle  of  a  word  ;  as,  o'er 
for  over. 

Synecdoche  [sin-e'k  do-ke],  85. 

SynS'resis  contracts  two  sylla- 
bles into  one;  as,  hallow-ed 
into  hallow'd. 

Synize'sis  is  the  same  as  syne- 
resis. 

Synonyms  [si'n-c-niraz],  37 ;  a 
means  of  variation,  94. 

Synthetic  method,  20. 


Tale,  definition  of,  162. 

Taste,  barbarous,  18  ;  defini- 
tions of,  137 ;  analysis  of,  138  ; 
nature  of,  139 ;  qualities  of, 
139 ;  universality  of,  139  ; 
variation  of,  140  ;  standard  of, 
141 ;  cultivation  of,  143  ;  catho- 
licity of,  144.. 


INDEX  AND    OLOJSSABY. 


269 


Tautology  [taw-to'l-o-je],  03. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  paragraph  from, 
75. 

Technical  -words,  30. 

Temperance,  use  of  the  word, 
39. 

Tense,  importance  of  distin- 
guishing, 47 ;  sequence  of 
tenses,  52. 

Terminus,  origin  of  the  word, 
31. 

Terza  rima  [tert-sa-re-mah], 
204. 

Teutoni9ism.  An  idiom  of 
the  German  language.  A  word 
or  construction  borrowed  from 
or  imitating  the  German  mode 
of  speaking. 

Thackeray,  referred  to,  157 ; 
170. 

That,  use  of  the  word,  49. 

There,  expletive  use  of,  98. 

The'sis.  This  word  is  used 
in  two  senses ;  (1)  A  proposi- 
tion which  a  writer  proposes  to 
establish;  (2)  The  composition 
in  which  the  proposition  is 
proved. 

Thompson,  James,  referred  to, 
198. 

Thought,  nature  of  a,  42, 

Tilde  [ti'l-da],  form  and  use,  123. 

Title-pages,  how  pointed,  113, 
114. 

Titles  of  books,  quoted,  125; 
of  office  and  honor,  how  writ- 
ten, 127,  181. 

Tmesis  [me'sis].  A  form  of 
speech  by  which  a  compound 
word  is  separated  into  parts  by 
the  intervention  of  something 
else. 

Torrey,  quoted,  142. 


Tract,  definition  of,  163. 

Tragedy,  197. 

Transpire,  use  of  the  word,  35. 

Transposed  parts,  how  pointed, 
108. 

Transposition,  a  means  of  va- 
riation, 1)8. 

Travesty,  definition  of,  155. 

Treatise  ftre-tis],  definition  of, 
168.  I 

Trench,  R.  C,  referred  to,  26. 
j  Til'bracli.     A  poetic  foot  com- 
I      ]>osed  of  three  short  syllables  ; 
I      as,  ^  ^_,  _ . 

Triplet,  203. 

Trochee  [tro'-kee],  200. 

Trope,  82. 

Truth,  use  of  the  word,  41. 

Tupper,  M.  F.,  referred  to,  198. 

Turner,  Sharon,  story  of,  129. 

Types,  varieties  of,  124. 

u. 

Unity,  meaning  of,  58  ;  impor- 
tance of,  58 ;  rules  for,  59 ;  in 
paragraphs,  72. 

Unities.  The  dramatic  unities 
are  three:  (1)  Of  Time.  The 
time  supposed  should  not  ex- 
ceed  twenty-four  hours  :  (2)  Of 
Place.  The  place  should  be 
one  and  the  same  throughout 
the  play :  (3)  Of  Action.  The 
action  should  consist  of  one 
main  plot. 


Vandenhoff,  quoted,  102. 
Vanity,  use  of  the  word,  40. 
Variation    of    expression, 

kinds  of,  94. 
Variety  in  paragraphs,  73. 


270 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


Vastness,  a  source  of  sublimity, 
154. 

Veracity,  use  of  the  word,  41, 

Verb,  agreement  of  with  sub- 
ject, 45. 

Verbal  formation,  law  of,  33. 

Verbatim,  origin  of  the  word, 
31. 

Verbosity.  Wordiness.  Ex- 
ample of,  90. 

Verbs,  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive, 47  ;  strong,  47. 

Verse,  the  natural  form  of  poe- 
try, 195  ;  definition  of,  201. 

Versification,  defined,  200. 

Vignette  [vin-ye't].  (1)  A  cap- 
ital letter  in  ancient  manu- 
scripts, ornamented  with  vines. 
(2)  Any  small  printer's  oma 
ment,  especially  little  cuts 
without  borders. 

Virgil,  compared  with  Homer, 
73  ;  referred  to,  144, 196, 198. 

Vision,  defined,  88. 

Vividness  of  style,  39. 

Vocabulary,  means  of  acquir- 
ing, 25. 

Vocative.  The  case  of  address. 
Words  in,  how  pointed,  109. 

Voltaire,  referred  to,  146. 

Vulgarisms,  30. 

W. 

Webster,   Daniel,   story  of,   3 ; 

his  description  of  oratory,  186 ; 

his    oratorical     manner,     192; 

his  legal  learning,  193. 
Whately,  style  of,  23  ;  referred 

to,  38. 
"Which,  use  of,  49. 
WTiilst,  disuse  of  the  word,  29. 
WTiipple,  E.  P.,  quoted,  157. 


White,  R.  G.,  referred  to,  26; 
quoted,  96. 

Williams,  Billy,  story  of,  57. 

Wilson,  John,  quoted,  102,129. 

Winckelmauu,  referred  to,  146. 

Who,  use  of,  49. 

Wit,  distinguished  from  humor, 
157. 

Without,  use  of  the  word,  36. 

Witty,  the,  explained,  154. 

Words,  importance  of,  25 ; 
newly-coined,  29  ;  foreign,  29  ; 
naturalization  of,  31 ;  techni- 
cal, 30  ;  the  fonnation  of.  31 ; 
generic  and  specific,  38 ;  equiv- 
ocal, 41 ;  negative  and  priva- 
tive, 41 ;  unnecessaiy,  63  ;  con- 
nective, use  of,  64;  emphatic, 
position  of,  64 ;  insignificant, 
65  ;  melodious,  67  ;  in  a  series, 
how  pointed,  107  ;  in  pairs,  how 
pointed,  108  ;  in  the  vocative, 
how  pointed,  109. 

Words-worth,  referred  to,  198  ; 
quoted,  204. 

Writing  in  a  circle,  74. 


Yclept,    [i-kle'pt],    use    of   the 

word,  29. 
Young,  Dr.  Edward,  referred  to, 

198. 


Zeu'gma.  A  form  of  speech  in 
wliich,  by  the  omission  of  a 
word,  another  is  connected  with 
a  word  with  which  it  cannot 
properly  be  joined  ;  as,  "  They 
wear  a  garment  like  that  of  the 
Scythians,  but  a  language  pe- 
culiar to  themselves." 


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